Difference between revisions of "Political: Arctic"
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Revision as of 20:02, 1 February 2022
Contents
Overview
The Arctic region consists of the exclusive economic zones or territories of the United States (U.S.), Canada, Framland (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Torrike, Bothnia, Arnland, Otso, and Donovia. The Arctic Council defines non-Arctic nations as nations asserting interests in the Arctic, but otherwise not geographically inside the region.
Eight countries ? Canada, Norway, Denmark, Bothnia, Otso, Donovia, Torrike, and the United States ? have Arctic territory, while five countries (Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, Donovia, and the U.S.), known as the Arctic Five, have Arctic Ocean coastline. Of note, Donovia has the most expansive Arctic territory of any of these countries.
The Arctic?s physical environment shapes the economic, social, and political environments. The region crosses numerous international jurisdictions, exclusive economic zones, national and international indigenous territories, and global commons. There is no single political body responsible for the entire region, although there are multiple permanent and ad hoc intergovernmental associations. Most of these organizations focus on science, environmental management, and safety. International organizations concerning the Arctic region include the United Nations (UN) International Maritime Organization (IMO), the Arctic Economic Council, the Arctic Council, the International Whaling Commission, and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council (BEAC)
Some non-Arctic countries also maintain a presence for scientific and environmental research as well as to support their Arctic partners. Additionally, the global competition between great powers manifests in the Arctic, with the primary U.S. competitor being Donovia. The People?s Republic of Olvana (PRO) requested recognition as an "Arctic Country" by the Arctic Council. The Council instead granted Olvana observer status in May 2013. Olvana considers itself a ?near-Arctic? nation.
There are territorial disputes among various Arctic nations; these are stable at present but could be associated with increasing tension in the future. The most active intergovernmental associations in the Arctic are the Arctic Council, the Barents Euro-Arctic Council, and the Arctic Five. Participation in these organizations is determined by the presence of national boundaries in the Arctic region.
Governance
The Arctic Council
The Arctic Council consists of the eight countries with Arctic territory and is the principal intergovernmental forum focused on conservation, safety, and development. By mandate, it is not a forum for security issues or territorial disputes. Member nations alternate chairing the Council.
The Arctic Council is the only circumpolar forum for political discussions at the government level. It was established in 1996 as a high-level forum to promote cooperation, coordination and interaction among the Arctic states and their indigenous peoples. In addition to Working Groups, the Arctic Council has two primary task forces: the Task Force on Arctic Marine Cooperation (TFAMC) and the Task Force on Improved Connectivity in the Arctic (TFICA). The Arctic Council is active only in the political and economic variables of the Arctic. It does not include security policy or the military.
| Member States | Observer States |
| United States (1996) | Germany (1998) |
| Canada (1996) | Netherlands (1998) |
| Donovia (1996) | Poland (1998) |
| Framland (1996) | United Kingdom (1998) |
| Torrike (1996) | France (2000) |
| Otso (1996) | Spain (2006) |
| Bothnia (1996) | Olvana (2013) |
| Arnland (1996) | South Torbia (2013) |
| Gabal (2013) | |
| Himaldesh (2013) | |
| Italy (2013) | |
| Japan (2013) | |
| South Korea (2013) | |
| Singapore (2013) | |
| Switzerland (2017) |
Six Arctic indigenous peoples? associations are permanent participants. The category of Permanent Participant was created to provide for active participation and full consultation with the Arctic indigenous peoples within the Council. They six Permanent Participants include:
- Aleut International Association
- Arctic Athabaskan Council
- Gwich?in Council International
- Inuit Circumpolar Council
- Donovian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North
The Arctic Council may designate member-approved organizations or states that have Arctic commercial or scientific interests as observers. Observers lack voting rights, but may take part in select projects or task forces. Since 2011, one of the preconditions of observer status is the observer must recognize the sovereignty and jurisdiction of each of the Arctic nations (Council Members).
The Arctic Council Chairmanship rotates between member states every two years. Donovia currently chairs the council until 2023.
| Years | Chair Country |
| 1996-1998 | Canada |
| 1998-2000 | United States |
| 2000-2002 | Otso |
| 2002-2004 | Framland |
| 2004-2006 | Donovia |
| 2006-2009 | Bothnia |
| 2009-2011 | Arnland |
| 2011-2013 | Torrike |
| 2013-2015 | Canada |
| 2015-2017 | United States |
| 2017-2019 | Otso |
| 2019-2021 | Framland |
| 2021-2023 | Donovia |
Barents Euro-Arctic Council
The Barents Euro-Arctic Council (BEAC) is the forum for intergovernmental cooperation on issues concerning the Barents Region. The BEAC meets at the Foreign Ministers level in the chair country at the end of term of office. The chair rotates every second year, between Framland, Bothnia, Donovia and Torrike.
The Arctic Five
The Arctic Security Forces Roundtable
(see Security Issues below)
Additional Governance
Western European Arctic states have multi-layered international partnerships and alliances. Bothnia and Torrike are members of the European Union (EU). Framland and Otso are not EU members but participate in the EU?s border-free Schengen Area. Framland, Bothnia, Otso, Framland, and Torrike also participate in the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers, which are for integration and cooperation between the Nordic states.
Security Issues
The Arctic Security Forces Roundtable is a multinational forum to improve communications and maritime domain awareness. Canada, Framland, Bothnia, Arnland, Framland, Donovia, Torrike, and the U.S. are members. The Council temporarily disinvited founding member Donovia because of Donvia?s aggressive military posture in Europe.
Security within the DATE Arctic Region focuses on two topics: military security of individual states and the common security of multiple regional states.
Military security mostly consists of jurisdiction and border related issues, while common security deals with threats of piracy, terrorism and environmental disasters in the region. Jurisdiction and border related issues take three major forms in the Arctic: those that are relating to continental shelves, those that focus on internal waterways that tend to be multilateral in nature, and those that are unsettled bilateral boundaries.
Arctic countries retain military presences in the Arctic to project their influence in the region and to protect their national security. However, a national military presence cannot solve issues that warrant international cooperation. Capabilities to provide shipping protection, to mitigate environmental disasters such as oil-spills, to deal with threats such as terrorism and smuggling are essential for common safety. These challenges necessitate cooperation among the Arctic states.
Legitimacy and Effectiveness
The international system has been sufficient to address disputes and grievances thus far, and Arctic stakeholders remain committed to working through established diplomatic channels and international law.
International Laws and Agreements
Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), coastal states have the right to create an exclusive economic zone (EEZ). In this zone, the coastal state has exclusive right to explore and exploit natural resources of the sea as well as the seabed and its subsoil, and any other economic exploitation. The coastal state may also exercise environmental jurisdiction in the zone. The EEZ can extend to a maximum of 200 nautical miles (approximately 370 km).
Under Article 76 of UNCLOS, a coastal state has the possibility of extending its continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles if within 10 years of the Convention coming into force for the state concerned, it can document to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) established pursuant to the Convention, that several scientific criteria are met. The coastal state will then have the right to living and non-living resources on and under the seabed beyond 200 nautical miles, subject to an obligation to make payments or contributions to the International Seabed Authority pursuant to Convention Article 82.
Search and Rescue within the Arctic is governed by the Arctic Council through a circumpolar treaty signed by all members, with geographic responsibility for SAR operations divided among the various member states.
Current Disputes and Issues of Concern
Northern Passages
The Northeast (NE) Passage, also known as the Northern Shipping Route (NSR) in Europe, is more navigable with less ice than the Northwest (NW) Passage, but Donovia imposes a tariff for its use. In contrast, Canada imposes no tariff on the NW. The NE Passage passes through Donovian territorial waters. Donovia maintains the passage with an icebreaker fleet, but also patrols it for security. The proximity to strategic Donovian military naval assets makes the NE Passage a risk for U.S. and European freedom of movement.
Arctic Nuclear Weapons Free Zone
While the Arctic Council does not address issues of security, several member-states are urging the council to adopt security measures to ensure that the Arctic is free of nuclear weapons.
Territorial Disputes
The principal international disputes are associated with territorial and maritime boundaries, continental shelves, and the economic rights associated with these claims. These include disputes between the U.S. and Canada, Canada and Framland, Canada and Donovia, and Framland and Donovia (though Donovia and Framland signed a maritime boundary agreement in 2010). As of 2020, all parties were working cooperatively or through international legal channels for resolution.
Potential territorial disputes in the Arctic involve overlapping extended continental shelf claims. Donovia, Framland, and Canada have all stated intent to extend their continental shelves northward under the guideline provided by UNCLOS, and their submitted claims overlap. In 2001, Donovia submitted a proposal claiming the Lomonsov Ridge was part of Donovia?s Continental Shelf. The territory claimed by Donovia in the submission is a large portion of the Arctic reaching the North Pole. In 2015, Donovia resubmitted a revised claim including years of additional data. Its claim now covers over 1,199,164.5 square kilometers (463,000 square miles) of sea shelf in the Arctic.
Olvana disputes Arctic nations? exclusivity to the region and has asserted itself as a ?near-Arctic state? in an attempt to legitimize future claims.