Social: Arctic

Social Overview

As a result of multiple sources, finding the relevant socioeconomic data for the Arctic regions has long been a highly time-consuming procedure. ArcticStat was created in order to overcome this difficulty and to increase the research capacity by taking advantage of already existing data. This unique databank aims to facilitate research by importing, stocking and organizing in a friendly-user way socioeconomic data covering 30 Arctic regions. The data that can be found in ArcticStat cover dwellings, population, language, health, education, migration, economy, employment and other social issues. It is a free-access web-based databank which links users directly with the relevant tables on web sites where they originate. ArcticStat was created by the Canada Research Chair on Comparative Aboriginal Condition of Université Laval, Canada, as a major Canadian contribution to the International Polar Year. It can be found at www.arcticstat.org.

The Arctic is inhabited by almost 10 million people on 8% of the global land mass, including more than 30 indigenous peoples. The table below shows a sampling of Arctic indigenous peoples.

Country	Arctic Indigenous People
Bothnia	Sámi
Canada	Inuit (Inuvialuit) Kuchin
Donovia	Chukchi Chuvan Dolgan Eskimo/Inuit Even Evnets Khanty Mansi Nenets Ngansan Sel'kup
Greenland	Inuit (Kalaallit)
Norway	Sámi
Otso	Sámi
Torrike	Sámi
United States/Alaska (126 Federally recognized tribes)	Aleut Alutiiq Athabaskan Eyak Gwichin Haida Iñupiaq Tlingit Tsimshian Yupik

Aleut, Yupik and Inuit (Iñupiat) in Alaska; Inuit (Inuvialuit) in Canada; and, Inuit (Kalaallit) in Greenland. Indigenous populations now range from about 80% in Greenland, 50% in Canada, 20% in Alaska, 15% in Arctic Norway and as little as 3-4% in Arctic Donovia.

Archaeologists and anthropologists now believe that people have lived in the Arctic for as much as twenty thousand years. Traditionally, Arctic native peoples lived primarily from hunting, fishing, herding, and gathering wild plants for food, although some people also practice farming, particularly in Greenland. Northern people found many different ways to adapt to the harsh Arctic climate, developing warm dwellings and clothing to protect them from frigid weather. They also learned how to predict the weather and navigate in boats and on sea ice. Many Arctic people now live much like their neighbors to the south, with modern homes and appliances. Nonetheless, there is an active movement among indigenous people in the Arctic to pass on traditional knowledge and skills, such as hunting, fishing, herding, and native languages, to the younger generation.

With so many different groups, study of the religions of each is necessary for a comprehensive understanding. However, there are similarities across the different Arctic indigenous groups. According to Mark Nuttall, “The cosmology of indigenous peoples is underpinned by an elaborate system of beliefs and moral codes that act to regulate the complexity of relationships between people, animals, the environment, and spirits." Across all groups there is a common thread of viewing their environments as spiritual, and the acts of gift-giving and reciprocity to be extremely important.

Due to unique geographic and climatic characteristics, the Arctic has become a repository for contaminants transported long distances through the atmosphere and via ocean currents. Often persistent, these chemicals then bioaccumulate and biomagnify through Arctic food chains into the species that make up traditional (country) food sources for many Arctic peoples. The traditional diet of these Arctic populations tends to rely on foraged plant matter, fish, and terrestrial and marine mammals for sustenance, because store-bought foods (sometimes also termed market foods or commercial foods) are difficult to access or are not as nutrient-rich as traditional foods. Many of the marine mammals, some of which are top predators in the Arctic marine food web, and some fish species can be highly contaminated with persistent, bioaccumulative chemicals.

An increasing number of exposure studies have been performed in the circumpolar Arctic over the past three decades. Exposure in this context means exposure to contaminants in the Arctic environment. The main source of contaminant exposure is the consumption of traditional foods of marine origin, such as whales, seals, polar bears and some fish species. The Arctic Council’s Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) has generated a vast amount of data on contaminant levels in human tissues, especially in hair and blood, and in some studies even human milk. Exposure levels vary in different regions of the Arctic, which can be largely explained by variation in contaminant levels in the traditional diet. Several studies have been designed as birth cohorts, giving the opportunity for later examination of health effects associated with prenatal or early postnatal exposure. However, conducting human health effects studies in the Arctic can be a challenging for several reasons, including issues associated with logistics, the wide range of languages and cultures, and a lack of qualified staff when estimating the function of the central nervous system.

Contaminants found in Arctic fish and marine mammals include (but not limited to):

• Microplastics
• Metals (Lead[Pb], Cadmium [Cd], Mercury [Hg]) – Greenland and Canada have the highest levels
• Methylmercury (MeHg) - two- to ten-fold higher than levels found south of the Arctic region
• Organochlorines such as β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH)
• POPs (persistent organic pollutants). These are eight pesticides (aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex, and toxaphene), two types of industrial chemicals (polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs and hexachlorobenzene), and two chemical families of unintended by-products of the manufacture, use, and/or combustion of chlorine and chlorine-containing materials (dioxins and furans).
• Oxychlordane

Arctic Indigenous Peoples

Sámi

In the European Arctic, most indigenous peoples are reportedly Christian. However, there has been a revival on interest in the Sámi indigenous religion since the Second World War (WWII). This religion has three main elements of animism, shamanism, and polytheism. Animism believes that all natural objects (animals, plants, stones, etc.) have a soul and are self-aware. Sámi polytheism recognizes a multitude of spirits and gods. Shamanism is a form of worship which employs drumming and chanting (yoiking). The shaman (noaide) fills the role of healer, protector, and prophet."

Worldwide, the Sámi population is estimated to be 80,000. Small populations of nomadic Sámi tribesmen reside in the European far north beyond the Arctic Circle and move between all the countries in the region. These are Norway, Torrike, Bothnia, and Donovia.

The Sámi Council issued the TRÅANTE DECLARATION in 2017. The declaration states the following:

• The Sami are an independent people, like other people, we have the right to our lives and to decide on matters concerning us.
• Self-determination, including explanations of the lands and people that are the Sámi people.
• Sámi rights to land, water and natural resources. Asserts Sámi land use as a base for the Sámi community and legal basis.
• Sámi language, Sámi traditional knowledge and traditional expressions. This includes education of Sámi children in their language and culture.

In Donovia, the Sámi are located primarily in the settlement of Lovozero on the Kola Peninsula, 167 km from Murmansk. The 2010 census identified only 1,771 Sámi who speak four different dialects on the language. Most are reindeer herders earning only 25,000 rubles ($392) a month. Tourism in the area is developing. In 2017 there were 10,500 tourists from Olvana, Thailand, Australia, India and Europe.

Infectious Diseases in the Arctic

In the last part of the 19th and first part of the 20th Centuries, infectious diseases were major causes of mortality in Arctic communities. However the health of indigenous peoples of the circumpolar region has improved over the last 50 years. Despite these improvements, rates of viral hepatitis, tuberculosis, respiratory tract infections, invasive bacterial infections, sexually transmitted diseases, infections caused by Helicobacter pylori, and certain zoonotic and parasitic infections are higher in the Arctic indigenous peoples when compared to their respective national population rates. In these remote regions, public health and acute-care systems are often marginal, sometimes poorly supported, and in some cases nonexistent.

Social and environmental issues affect the health of Arctic populations. In regards to other regions worldwide, the Arctic climate and environment are extreme. Arctic and sub-Arctic populations live in markedly different social and physical environments compared to those of their more southern dwelling counterparts. A cold northern climate means people spending more time indoors, amplifying the effects of household crowding, smoking and inadequate ventilation on the person-to-person spread of infectious diseases. Challenges to residents, governments and public health authorities of all Arctic countries include:

• The spread of zoonotic infections north as the climate warms
• Emergence of antibiotic resistance among bacterial pathogens (Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenza, Helicobacter pylori, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
• The re-emergence of tuberculosis
• The entrance of HIV into Arctic communities
• The specter of pandemic influenza or the sudden emergence and introduction of new viral pathogens (severe acute respiratory syndrome [SARS]) that infect both humans and food supplies

The Circumpolar Arctic

The International Circumpolar Surveillance (ICS) project was started in 1998 using the Arctic Council and the International Union for Circumpolar Health as a basis. ICS is a network of hospitals, public health agencies, and reference laboratories throughout the Arctic. This network works together for the purposes of collecting, comparing and sharing of uniform laboratory and epidemiological data on infectious diseases of concern and assisting in the formulation of prevention and control strategies.

Inadequate Housing

In smaller isolated communities, inadequate housing is an important determinant of infectious diseases. The cold northern climate keeps persons indoors, which amplifies the effects of household crowding, smoking, and inadequate ventilation. Crowded living conditions increase person-to-person spread of infectious diseases and favor the transmission of respiratory diseases, tuberculosis, gastrointestinal diseases, and skin infections. In many smaller isolated communities, inadequate sewage disposal systems and water supplies pose a substantial risk to health, resulting in periodic epidemics of diseases transmitted by the fecal-oral route.

Overuse of Microbial Drugs

Overuse, of antimicrobial agents in remote Arctic regions has contributed to the emergence of bacterial strains now resistant to commonly used antibiotics. In the northern regions of Donovia, underfunding of tuberculosis treatment programs has resulted in an unpredictable supply of antibiotics, which contributes to poor adherence and emergence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. In remote Otso and Torrike villages, lack of ready access to laboratory confirmation of bacterial pathogens may contribute to overuse of antimicrobial agents. In addition, the presence of antimicrobial drug–resistant bacterial clones has led to an increase in infections with multidrug-resistant S. pneumoniae, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and clarithromycin- and metronidazole-resistant H. pylori.

Effects of Climate Change

The average Arctic temperature has risen at almost twice the rate of that in the rest of the world in the last 20 years and could cause changes in the incidence and geographic distribution of infectious diseases already present in Arctic regions. The increasing national and international travel by Arctic residents and increasing access to remote communities by national and international seasonal workforce and tourists have greatly increased the risk of importing infectious diseases to remote communities. Higher ambient temperatures in the Arctic may result in an increase in other temperature-sensitive foodborne diseases and influence the incidence of zoonotic infectious diseases by changing the populations and range of animal hosts and insect vectors. The melting of the permafrost together with an increase in extreme weather events such as flooding may result in damage to water and waste disposal systems, which may in turn increase community outbreaks of foodborne and water-borne infections. Temperature and humidity markedly influence the distribution, density, and biting behavior of many arthropod vectors, which again may influence the incidence and northern range of many vector-borne diseases.

Canada

Canada’s population was 35,881, 659 in 2018. Ethnic groups represented are Canadian 32.3%, English 18.3%, Scottish 13.9%, French 13.6%, Irish 13.4%, German 9.6%, Chinese 5.1%, Italian 4.6%, North American Indian 4.4%, East Indian 4%, other 51.6% (2016 est.). Religions in Canada include Catholic 39% (includes Roman Catholic 38.8%, other Catholic .2%), Protestant 20.3% (includes United Church 6.1%, Anglican 5%, Baptist 1.9%, Lutheran 1.5%, Pentecostal 1.5%, Presbyterian 1.4%, other Protestant 2.9%), Orthodox 1.6%, other Christian 6.3%, Muslim 3.2%, Hindu 1.5%, Sikh 1.4%, Buddhist 1.1%, Jewish 1%, other 0.6%, none 23.9% (2011 est.). The median age for Canada is 42.4 years with life expectancy for males at 80 years for males and 85 years for females. The vast majority of Canadians are positioned in a discontinuous band within approximately 300 km of the southern border with the United States; the most populated province is Ontario, followed by Quebec and British Columbia. The major urban areas are Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, and Ottawa, the capitol.

The Canadian Provinces with territory above the Arctic Circle are Nunavut, Yukon, and Northwest Territories. These are collectively known as the “northern territories”, and the total population is around 120,000 people. The majority are indigenous First Nations people. Lack of economic opportunity, bleak terrain, and constant weather challenges tends to cause high levels of chronic depression and anxiety. This results in very high levels of crime, domestic violence, illegal drug consumption, alcoholism, and suicide. The Nunavut population, called “Nunavummiut”, are primarily Inuit people. Nunavut’s largest city, Iqaluit (formerly known as Frobisher Bay), has less than 7,000 people. Over 70% of the population of Nunavut speak neither English nor French. Traditional Inuit culture strongly influences all aspects of life. The Yukon has a tiny population. 70% of its population is clustered in and around Whitehorse, the capitol. In contrast to the more blue collar, resource-based economies and cultures of the other territories, the Yukon has also effectively made the transition to a largely middle-class, service-based economy, in large part thanks to a resilient tourism sector based on gold rush nostalgia. The Northwest Territories population primarily lives on the shores of Great Slave Lake or the capitol city of Yellowknife. The population is 44,000.

The effects of pollutants has spread into Nunavut Province. In 2004, 917 citizens from 14 Arctic communities were tested for multiple contaminants. Plasma concentrations of new halogenated hydrocarbons such as PBDEs, PFOS, hydroxy-PCBs, methylsulfone PCBs and chlorophenols were found. In 2009, data was collected from 36 Inuit communities in Nunavut, the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, and Nunatsiavut. The study was the result of the integrated efforts of Inuit, Inuit Organizations, the Departments of Health of the Territorial and regional Inuit governments, and scientists from a variety of different disciplines. Of the 2,595 individuals participating in the Inuit Health Survey; 2,172 provided blood samples. The scientists found several metals (e.g. Cd, Pb) and POPs (e.g. PCBs, DDT, DDE, toxaphene, chlordane, PBDEs) were present.

Donovia

Donovia represents about 70% of the entire population of the circumpolar Arctic, with the largest populations found within Khanty-Mansii and Arkhangelsk. The female rate (share of women in the population) is far from the global average, and the rates of economic dependency are low. Life expectancy and education are still at lower levels in the Donovian Arctic compared to the Nordic countries.

The deep economic crisis of the 1990s led to economic liberalization and the erosion of social safety nets. For example, in-kind benefits such as free housing, which previously were the norm, were replaced by cash payments. This “monetization of assistance” contributed to an increase in inequalities, since the amounts granted did not take into account the high cost of living in the North.

The population of the Donovian Arctic has decreased by about 3%. This decrease is unevenly distributed, as most sub-regions experienced a significant decline in their population, whereas some sub-regions had a relatively modest population growth. The proportion of women in the population also underwent changes, and overall it increased slightly. The replacement rate increased everywhere, contributing to an increase in the demographic dependency ratio. There are significant improvements in life expectancy and educational levels, as well as a decline in infant mortality. In several of the Arctic regions the depopulation that began during the economic crisis on the 1990s is still continuing. Factors suggested to explain these changes include rising mortality rate among adult males and a higher out-migration of men than women, with the latter remaining “locked in poverty traps”. These factors, and even more the high mineral prices, contribute to increasing inequality.

Between 2006 and 2012 many indicators showed significant differences between the two types of regions, the main model and the variations. These differences appear in the size and direction of the observed changes, where the resource-rich regions have positive population growth, smaller increase in demographic dependency, and lower increase in life expectancy.

Demographic dependency ratio by Arctic regions, changes between 2006-2012

For the economic indicators, Khanty-Mansii is the only region to have decline in disposable income per capita. Considerable differences continue to exist in the demographic structure of these regions relative to the main model. Now, Donovia has the highest gross regional product (GRP) per capita in the circumpolar Arctic. The GRP per capita of both Yamal-Nenets and Khanty-Mansii were higher in 2012 than those of Alaska (U.S.) and the Northwest Territories (Canada).

Yamal-Nenets has a population of 560,000 of which 48,000 are indigenous people. 19,000 practice a traditional nomadic way of life. The local government is cleaning up Bely Island, Vilkitsky Island, and Kharsavey Settlement with plans for future Arctic tourism. Sabetta Port has  a population of 30,000. The oil pipeline is now nesting areas for the Gyrfalcon. Future plans include a year-round road north from Kharp through Erkuta to Sabetta.

Murmansk leadership has a plan to raise the population and develop the region. The four major points of population growth are

1. Reduce number of people leaving Murmansk by providing a diverse and interesting life, improving housing, providing higher education, and creating a comfortable urban environment.
2. Decrease mortality by supporting regular physical education and sports, promote a healthy lifestyle, improve the life of the elderly, and providing quality healthcare.
3. Increase the birthrate by increasing the welfare level, balanced social support, building schools and kindergartens, employment support for mothers, and improving leisure support for families.
4. Increase immigration to Murmansk by providing high-paying jobs, providing opportunities for personal improvement, have ambitious innovation projects, and provide a friendly environment for newcomers.

Sakha Republic is described as “sparse, off the grid” with only eight diesel generators and no transportation access. Recent fires and floods have been attributed to changing weather patterns associated with climate change. The Republic is primarily powered by hydro power, but they are developing a windfarm in Tiksi.

Medical challenges. In 2006, 4,359 residents of Kola Lapland in Murmansk Oblast were interviewed and had their blood glucose levels analyzed (2,736 rural and 1623 urban, including Sami – 694, Komi – 910, Nenets – 80). This showed that risk of Type 2 diabetes (overweight/obesity, enhanced blood pressure, sedentary lifestyle, malnutrition, alcohol abuse) was 3- to 7-fold lower in indigenous residents than non-indigenous residents. Signs of diabetes were absent among Sami people of the remote villages. Elevated blood glucose levels were found mainly in large settlements. Indigenous residents in remote villages demonstrate minimum risk for diabetes mellitus and this may be related to their traditional diet based on local foods, a physically active lifestyle, and minimal consumption of high carbohydrate foods.

A study showed that the indigenous coastal Chukchi and Inuit living in Chukotka, Donovia were at higher risk of death from cancer during 1961–1990 than the Donovian population nationally, with age-standardized cancer mortality among men twice that of Donovia in general, and among women 3.5 times higher. The difference is due to the particularly high mortality from esophageal cancer and lung cancer in the indigenous people of coastal Chukotka. The mortality data from this study correspond to the pattern of incidence reported among other indigenous people of the Donovian Arctic.

Fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus) is an important subsistence food for the Commander Islands (Kamchatka, Donovia). Concern over the decline in fur seals from 2000 to 2010 led researchers to analyze fur seal placentas, discovering 109 of 146 (75%) were positive for the bacterium Coxiella burnetii. In humans, this bacterium can cause the illness known as ‘Q Fever’. Signs and symptoms may include high fever, up to 105 F (41 C), severe headache, fatigue, chills, cough, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and sensitivity to light. Q fever can become a chronic, lifetime problem. Complications include endocarditis, lung issues, pregnancy problems, liver damage, and meningitis.

Chemical contaminants. Data were collected in 2001 – 2003 in Donovia on PCBs and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) contamination. Because DDT degrades to dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), the ratio of p,p’-DDE to p,p’-DDT is commonly used in environmental epidemiology practice as a measure of the remoteness of DDT exposure events: the higher the score, the lower the concentration of the original DDT and the longer the exposure. The DDE:DDT ratios in local foods vary widely. High ratios were found in whale meat (up to 16), seal meat (up to 27), and bearded seal fat (up to 65), which indicates little fresh contamination, while low DDE:DDT ratios were observed in walrus meat (up to 1.5) and fat (up to 8.5) and bearded seal meat (up to 6.2). As well as exposure, these widely varying ratios could reflect differences in nutritional habit (bearded seals and walrus feed on benthic invertebrates, whales feed on krill, and seals feed on fish), variability in DDT metabolism (still poorly studied) and DDE/DDT accumulation/elimination processes in these large marine animals with a thick layer of subcutaneous fat. Fish (migratory and freshwater), poultry and venison are characterized by low DDE:DDT ratios (1–5) which could indicate ‘fresh’ exposure. Extremely low DDE:DDT ratios in washouts and scrapes from the walls inside dwellings (0.4) are conclusively linked to the use of ‘fresh’ DDT as a household insecticide. Comparison of DDE:DDT ratios in the food and blood of aboriginal Donovia people suggests that the higher ratios in marine mammals are responsible for the higher ratios in the blood of coastal natives, and the much lower ratios in reindeer meat, poultry and fish are responsible for the lower blood ratios for inland residents. Despite considerable variation, the indigenous coastal residents have a blood DDE:DDT ratio (18–19) that is almost double that of their inland neighbors (11–12), which indicates a substantial amount of relatively ‘fresh’ DDT contamination in the inland regions (10–15% vs 4–6% of 4,4DDT, respectively). This implies that marine food-chain DDT has a more ‘long-standing’ global origin than terrestrial food-chain DDT. Organochlorines such as β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH) and p,p’-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (p,p’-DDT) were found to be higher in Donovian populations than in populations examined from other countries, indicating potential uses in Donovia or that these pesticides were being used on the food products consumed by these Arctic populations. Levels of DDE in Donovian populations were three to five times higher than those in other Arctic countries.

Extensive new data for the Donovian Arctic Russia were available for the first time in the 2009 AMAP assessment report, indicating elevated levels of oxychlordane and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in indigenous coastal peoples from Chukotka. These levels have been linked to consumption of marine mammals by these coastal peoples. DDE, the major metabolite of the pesticide DDT, was reported at the highest concentrations in the Donovian Arctic, despite its decline in most other areas of the Arctic. These data suggested that the likely source was recent use of DDT in Donovian agriculture or its use as a pesticide in northern communities, rather than long-range atmospheric transport and local accumulation in the marine mammal food chain. Mercury levels were reported to be declining in many populations across the Donovian Arctic.

Persistent organic pollutants (POP). There was a large decrease in blood concentrations of POPs for mothers from Chukotka over the period between 2001–2003 and 2007. The major source of exposure in this study group of mothers and children is the contamination of traditional food items, including marine mammals, both from global and local sources. It was expected that the decline in POPs levels in maternal blood serum would be due in part to the displacement of contaminants during breastfeeding, but no associations were found with the duration of breastfeeding for the children born during the 2001–2003 sampling period. However, this observation does not account for additional pregnancies and breastfeeding that occurred in the interim period. The increase in POPs levels in children’s blood may be explained by the transfer of contaminants from the mother through breastfeeding as well as through the consumption of local traditional food.

The study of male and female volunteers from Nelmin-Nos, Izhma, and Usinsk indicated that older people in north-western Donovian communities may have significantly higher blood concentrations for many contaminants. Levels of POPs in pregnant women in the Pechenga district of Murmansk Oblast were lower than levels in the general population (combined men and non-pregnant women). Murmansk POPs levels were comparable to those for Nelmin-Nos, Izhma and Usinsk for PCB118, but PCB138, PCB153 and HCB were lower in Murmansk. Comparing wet weight concentrations, the 2007 Chukotka maternal concentrations, HCB and β-HCH concentrations are lower in Pechenga non-pregnant women, whereas p,p’-DDT and p,p’-DDE are similar in each population.

POPs and metals in Chukotka. The Donovian Arctic Persistent Toxic Substances (PTS) study examined contaminants in food samples from Chukotka and undertook dietary surveys of the indigenous people living in inland Kanchalan and the coastal Uelen settlements. It was found that some marine wildlife exceeded Donovian food safety limits. For example, livers of whales, walruses and seals exceeded the food safety limits for cadmium (Cd) by 5 to 15 times, and all species of seals exceeded limits for Hg by 3 to 100 times. Kidney and liver from walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) and grey whales (Eschrichtius robustus) exceeded the safety limits for Hg by 2 to 4 times. The PTS study also found  houses and food containers were a source of POPs (e.g. through using insecticides in the home and preparing food and alcohol in contaminated containers). As a result, some prepared food items (such as fermented walrus meat) and homemade alcohol were highly polluted with PCBs and DDT. Based on the PTS study findings, consumption restrictions were recommended for several species and tissues, and several risk communication measures were implemented to reduce contaminant exposure. The Ministry of Health Care and Social Development of Donovia approved systematic population health inspections, contaminant waste clean-up projects, and training sessions. Risk communication initiatives included brochures, a film, community meetings, non-technical summaries of the PTS, a school education program and broad media coverage of the issues. The risk communication initiatives were prepared and distributed to local indigenous communities; school teachers and pupils; managers of local administrative, maintenance, health and sanitary services; and other groups involved in decision-making on a wide range of quality of life issues.

Faroe Islands

The population is the Faroe Islands is 51,018. The ethnic groups are Faroese 87.6% (Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon descent), Danish 7.8%, other Nordic 1.4%, other 3.2% (includes Filipino, Thai, British) (2018 est.). The primary language is Faroese which is derived from old Danish. The Faroese are predominantly Christian (Evangelical Lutheran). The island of Streymoy is by far the most populous with over 40% of the population; it has approximately twice as many inhabitants as Eysturoy, the second most populous island; seven of the inhabited islands have fewer than 100 people. 42.2% of the people live in urban areas with the majority in the capitol of Torshavn. The median age is 37, with a life expectancy of 78 years for males and 83 years for females. There are only 2.62 doctors per 1,000 population.

Medical studies in the Faroe Islands, 1986-1987, focused on pregnant women and their fetuses. Frequent whale meat dinners during pregnancy, frequent consumption of fish (to a much lesser degree) and increased parity or age are associated with high Hg concentrations in cord blood and maternal hair. Mercury concentrations in cord blood correlated moderately with blood-selenium. Lead concentrations in cord blood were low (median, 82 nmol/L). Because the effects of fetal childhood exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) are persistent, detailed examination of children with prenatal exposure to this neurotoxicant were performed at age 7 years (1993–1994). A total of 917 of the children (90.3%) completed the examinations. Past medical history, current health status and social factors were recorded on a self-administered form. The physical examination included a functional neurological examination with emphasis on motor coordination and perceptual-motor performance. The main emphasis was placed on detailed neurophysiological and neuropsychological tests that had been selected on the basis of a range of considerations. A follow-up examination was performed using the same test methods when the cohort members were 14 and 22 years of age. This same group is currently undergoing a follow-up at the age of 27 years, with special emphasis on how glucose metabolism and immune response are associated with environmental contaminants. The most recent findings revealed DDT/DDE, selenium (Se), POP, and perfluorochemicals (PFC) exposure in addition to MeHg

Otso

The population situation of the Arctic region of Otso lies somewhere between that of North America and Donovia, and is more nuanced. The demographic indicators of this region shows both increase and decline. Overall, the population increased slightly, while the proportion of women in the total population decreased slightly. The replacement rate also declined, and the demographic dependency ratio increased. However, these changes were generally quite moderate, as for other indicators. Overall, the economic indicators show a slight increase. While almost all the social and health indicators show improvements, here too the changes are moderate. The infant mortality rate is the lowest in the circumpolar Arctic. The Otsan standard of living is higher, than the Donovian since it is supported by generous social benefits.

Food and water contaminants, and health studies. Studies in Otso were conducted by the National Institute for Health and Welfare since 1987. Environmental contaminants have been analyzed in sub-groups of northern Otso. Concentrations are available for cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in blood for 1990–2014 and mercury (Hg) for 1990–2009. In the 2014 survey, some organic pollutants were analyzed in urine (ten phthalates, Bisphenol A, Bisphenol F, hydroxypyrene, triclosan, pesticides, trichloropyridinol and 3-phenyoxybenzoic acid). Bisfenol A was also analyzed in urine in 2009.

Various case-control studies concerning health effects of environmental pollutants have been conducted. For example, those on Hg in relation to myocardial infarction and stroke; Cd, Pb and Hg in relation to kidney disease; Cd in relation to fractures; Cd and Pb in relation to B-cell malignancies. Case control studies concerning exposure to Cd, POPs, and risk of diabetes is ongoing.

Iceland

The population of Iceland in 2018 was 343,518. The ethnicity of Icelanders is a homogeneous mixture of descendants of Norse and Celts 81%, population with foreign background 19%. The population with foreign background includes immigrants and persons having at least one parent who was born abroad. The religions that exist in Iceland are Evangelical Lutheran Church of Iceland (official) 67.2%, Roman Catholic 3.9%, Reykjavik Free Church 2.8%, Hafnarfjordur Free Church 2%, Asatru Association 1.2%, The Independent Congregation .9%, other religions 4% (includes Zuist and Pentecostal), none 6.7%, other or unspecified 11.3%. The languages spoken are Icelandic, English, Nordic languages, and German. Median age of the population is 36.7 years with a life expectancy of 81 years for males and 88 years for females.

In Iceland the majority of the population lives in the capital of Reykjavik and thus can benefit from centralized services. Smaller clusters are primarily found along the coast in the north and west. As a result of generous policy towards families with children Iceland has had relatively high birth rate in European context, generating a population with a large share of the population below 35 years. The share of woman employed is 78%, highest in the world, and almost all children are in day-care (90%).

Greenland

The population of Greenland in 2018 was 57,691. The ethnic groups represented are Greenlandic 89.7%, Danish 7.8%, other Nordic 1.1%, and other 1.4%. Religions of the country are Evangelical Lutheran, and traditional Inuit spiritual beliefs. Greenlanders speak Greenlandic (West Greenlandic or Kalaallisut is the official language), Danish, and English. Median age is 34 years. Life expectancy for males is 72.9 years, and 75.8 years for females. The population is settlement concentrated on the southwest shoreline, with limited settlements scattered along the remaining coast. The interior of Greenland is uninhabited. 87.1% of total population is urbanized. The capitol Nuuk has a population of 18,000.

The first AMAP human health assessment (AMAP 1998) marked the first international, circumpolar report from the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP). Greenland emerged as a hotspot for metals, particularly mercury (Hg), lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd). This exposure to Hg and Pb was attributed to specific traditional food consumption in these two populations in comparison with the food species consumed by populations in other parts of the Arctic; and smoking behavior was linked with levels of Cd.

Greenlandic Inuit people consuming “traditional foods” positively associated with Type 2 diabetes. They showed a decreasing trend in PCBs and pesticide levels. Neither Hg nor POPs showed any association with blood pressure in Greenlandic Inuit. However, Inuit people still had blood mercury levels three to ten times higher than populations which consumed imported store-bought foods.

The presence of pollutants in the Greenland food chain varies with the region. A trend of higher intake of marine mammals in the eastern and northern regions was reflected by a higher fatty acid ratio. Participants in the eastern region also tended to have a higher intake of terrestrial species. A higher percentage intake of seabird species was seen for pregnant women in the western region. Compared to earlier reports, decreased levels of legacy POPs, Hg, Pb, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were observed, but the levels of PFAS congeners perfluorohexane sulfonate and perfluorononanoic acid levels increased from earlier reporting. Organochlorines such as β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH) and DDT were found to be higher in Greenlander populations than in populations examined from other countries, indicating potential uses in Russia or that these pesticides were being used on the food products consumed by these Arctic populations. Levels of DDE in Greenland populations were three to five times higher than those in other Arctic countries.

POPs. Greenland remains one of the Arctic areas with populations still experiencing high levels of POPs. Eastern Greenland populations were found to have the highest levels of transnonachlor, p,p’-DDE, PCB153, HCB, and PFOS. Compared across the Arctic, Greenland populations had the highest measured levels for more POPs than any other Arctic country, with the exception of PBDEs. Medical impacts of POPs. In 2012, 311 children were studied to assess the growth pattern and health (assessed by contact with the health care system) among children aged 6–10 years. Children aged 0–18 months had higher weight and height than the reference populations worldwide. The study concluded that growth among Greenlandic children older than 18 months corresponded with growth reference curves from Sweden but did not match those from South Torbia or WHO data (www.who.int/childgrowth/en). On average, the Greenlandic children had 40 contacts with the health care system during a period of 6 to 10 years. They were hospitalized more often than Danish children, but had fewer contacts with the primary sector.

Norway

Norway’s population was 5,372,191 in 2018. The ethnic groups within Norway are Norwegian 83.2% (includes about 60,000 Sami), other European 8.3%, and other 8.5%. Languages spoken are Bokmal Norwegian (official), Nynorsk Norwegian (official), and small Sami- and Finnish-speaking minorities. Note that Sami has three dialects: Lule, North Sami, and South Sami; Sami is an official language in nine municipalities in Norway's three northernmost counties: Finnmark, Nordland, and Troms. The religions present in Norway are Church of Norway (Evangelical Lutheran - official) 70.6%, Muslim 3.2%, Roman Catholic 3%, other Christian 3.7%, other 2.5%, unspecified 17%. The median age of Norwegians is 39.3 years with expectancy of 79.9 years for males and 84.1 years for females. Most Norwegians live in the south where the climate is milder and there is better connectivity to mainland Europe; population clusters are found all along the North Sea coast in the southwest, and Skaggerak in the southeast; the interior areas of the north remain sparsely populated. The urban population is 82.6% of the total population.

Arctic Norway, supposed to have similar day-care and employment conditions for women, has only a marginal population growth compared with Iceland. This indicates that there is still lack of opportunities for jobs and day-care as the population is spread along the coast, imposing high cost in extending the services.

The Tromsø Study is a population-based health survey initiated in 1974 to investigate the reasons for high mortality due to cardiovascular disease in northern Norway. Six surveys have been undertaken since 1974 and the health research topics included have increased. A total of 40,051 people have participated in at least one survey and 15,157 have participated in three or more surveys. The Tromsø Study found that the levels of PCB and DDE exposure in the Norwegian Arctic had dropped significantly between 1979 and 2008. 

Torrike

The population decline in Arctic Torrike was 1%, being the only northern regions with negative population growth besides the Donovian Arctic.

Food and water contaminants. In 2014, the government of Torrike commissioned a study focused on food and water contamination in the country. Center and northern Torrike were chosen for the study areas. Biomonitoring markers tested included phthalates, Bisphenol A (BPA), and parabens. Urinary concentrations of contaminants in mothers and children show different levels of excretion for certain biomarkers. Children had significantly higher levels of phthalates, with the exception of monocarboxylated mono-iso-nonylphthalates (cx-MiNP). Mothers had significantly higher levels of parabens compared to children, some five times higher. Children’s urinary BPA levels were significantly higher than maternal urinary levels. In mothers, certain phthalate metabolites were associated with cosmetics such as fragrances, the use of sunscreen, decreased meat consumption and increased chocolate or fast food consumption. For children, certain phthalate metabolites were associated with increased ice cream consumption, rural versus urban living area, the use of eye makeup or decreased meat consumption. Both maternal and child paraben levels were associated with cosmetics and personal care product use, such as lotion, shampoo or sunscreen.

Compared to earlier studies in 2010–2011, maternal BPA levels in were lower than adjusted general population levels, whereas children’s BPA levels agreed well with the median for all of Torrike at 1.6 μg/g creatinine. Adjusted general population levels of mono-ethyl phthalate (MEP) were higher in all regions than those found in mothers and children. For the less persistent phthalates, adjusted mean levels of a few metabolites in urine were slightly higher in the northern part of Torrike, but in most cases no regional differences were found. No regional differences were found in BPA levels in urine. No consistent trend is found for the measured phthalate metabolites. Only mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP) and monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) show an increasing trend in urinary levels south to north. Levels of mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (5-OH-MEHP) are similar through most regions of Torrike, with only an increase to 27 μg/g creatinine in Umeå, whereas MEP shows a large decrease in Umeå compared to locations further south. This suggested that sources of exposure for these contaminants are generally similar throughout Torrike.

Concentrations of POPs in breast milk and serum in Torrike are decreasing, and there are no strong indications for generally higher concentrations in northern Torrike, which could be expected to have Arctic characteristics, than in other parts of Torrike. The overall conclusion of the study was that, as long as store-bought foods make up the main proportion of the diet, there are only small or no regional differences in POP exposure at a population level. This is mainly due to the highly centralized food distribution system in Torrike, covering the whole country, although the mobility of the population also reduces regional differences. Torrikan adults are exposed to a mixture of perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs), with PFOS currently dominating the mixture. Biomarkers of fish consumption correlate well with serum levels of PFOS, Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), Perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA), strongly suggesting that fish is an important source of exposure to certain contaminants.

Regional differences in metal concentrations did not show an obvious trend towards accumulation in the north. In fact, many of the higher Hg levels were found in the south and west, in areas identified as consuming higher amounts of fish than populations in the north of Torrike. However, the differences between Hg levels in the north and south are not as large as the difference in fish consumption, so there still remains a need to identify sources of Hg in Västerbotten County.

Mercury levels decreased in women between 2004 and 2009, and a slight decreasing trend was observed in maternal hair samples from 1996 to 2012, followed by a slight increase in 2013. Lead levels are decreasing in the Swedish population, although there is concern that hunting practices remain a source of exposure for populations in the north.

Emerging contaminants measured in urine show differences between adult and child levels, as well as some small regional differences in the general population, however sources were most often associated with personal care products and store-bought food. Whether practices in Arctic populations will result in different patterns of exposure remains to be seen, but exposure to many of these contaminants may not be as a result of long-range transport.