Chapter 11: Air Defense

Air defense is an integral component of combined arms combat. The OPFOR system of air defense includes the strategic, operational, and tactical levels. This chapter concentrates on tactical-level air defense. It discusses operational-level air defense only when it contributes to an understanding of tactical air defense and the relationship between the two. For more detailed information on air defense at the strategic and operational levels, see FM 7-100.1.

Air Defense System

OPFOR air defense supports combined arms combat by the comprehensive integration of a large number and variety of weapons and associated equipment into an effective, redundant air defense system. Employment of this system pursues the basic objectives of air defense by employing certain concepts and principles. This is best accomplished by establishing an integrated air defense system (IADS). Overall, the OPFOR employs a three-phase approach to air defense, in which tactical air defense is primarily part of the third phase.

Objectives

The objective of OPFOR tactical air defense efforts is to reduce the effectiveness of enemy air attacks and prevent enemy air action from interfering with maneuver force operations. This objective can be accomplished by any of the following means:

• Destroying enemy aircraft.
• Forcing the aircraft to expend their munitions before reaching the optimum or effective range.
• Diverting the aircraft before reaching their targets.
• Mitigating the effectiveness of the attack.
• Forcing the enemy to break off and/or discontinue the air attack.

Concepts

OPFOR air defense doctrine emphasizes three key and interrelated concepts. The first is that every unit is immediately responsible for defending itself from aerial observation and air attack by whatever means are available. All units conduct air surveillance whenever aerial threat is imminent.

The second concept is that air defense is an integral part of combined arms combat. A maneuver unit commander who disregards the enemy air threat or fails to properly plan for defending against it risks mission failure. All units are required to report the presence of enemy aerial systems on detection.

The third concept is that air defense weapons, radars, and associated equipment cannot be regarded as single pieces of equipment or even units engaged in combat actions but as parts of an IADS. Proper integration of these assets as both a system and integral part of mission planning and execution for mission accomplishment is the ideal way the commander can effectively deal with the enemy air threat.

Principles

The OPFOR follows several basic principles when conducting air defense: surprise, firepower, mobility, continuity, initiative, coordination, and security. Of these, the element of surprise is the most critical.

Surprise

Achieving surprise is fundamental to any successful air defense battle. At the tactical level, surprise can be achieved through a variety of means, including—

• The positioning of air defense systems in unexpected locations.
• The use of camouflage, concealment, cover and deception (C3D).
• The use of non-air defense systems in conjunction with air defense systems.

Firepower

The OPFOR force structure includes a wide variety of air defense weapons (missiles and guns). This mix of capabilities gives ground force commanders outstanding firepower for air defense. It is important that air defense planning consider and employ all assets available, across all arms, to achieve maximum firepower. Almost all tactical vehicles and many support vehicles have guns for self-defense against aerial systems. Other weapons, even improvised weapons, can be used against some aircraft.

Mobility

Air defense assets must have mobility comparable to the ground forces for which they provide cover. When planning air defense, the commander must always consider the mobility of air defense weapons and the time required for their deployment. The ground forces, for which air defenses provide cover, are quite mobile and frequently change formation as they deploy. The air enemy is mobile and can attack from many directions or altitudes. Therefore, the commander must use to the maximum the mobility and firepower of his assets, creating optimum groupings and fire plans. Improvements in mobility and fire control now allow more air defense weapons and sensors to operate and engage air targets while moving on difficult terrain. Mobility contributes directly to continuity.

Continuity

Air defense forces must provide continuous protection of critical organizations and assets. This includes keeping up with dynamic maneuver elements to ensure comprehensive coverage. That requires constantly moving air defense units with adequate logistics support (or self-contained logistics). They must provide air defense day or night in all weather conditions. Shorter emplacement, displacement, and response times, and radars that can operate while moving can support the requirement. Most air defense systems have integrated fire control, with local sensors needed for autonomous operation.

Initiative

The modern battlefield is a fluid and volatile environment where air defense unit commanders must respond to constant changes in the situation. This demands aggressive action, initiative, and originality. If the supported unit receives a modified mission, the commander must reevaluate his own unit’s deployment in light of the new requirements. He also must be aware of changes in the tactics enemy air forces employ.

Coordination

The OPFOR stresses coordination between supported maneuver and supporting air defense units, between air defense units, and with other arms. Commanders must operate efficiently even when communications with other air defense units fail. All tactical-level air defense weapons must coordinate precisely with supported and flanking units, with senior airspace management, and supporting aviation assets (if available).

Security

The OPFOR recognizes that enemy air assets can attack from any quarter. Therefore, it must provide security for units at any depth and from any direction. Air defense units are positioned to assure radar security and overlapping coverage of sectors. Because of the threat from enemy ground elements, air defense units must coordinate with supported maneuver units to ensure sufficient ground security.

Integrated Air Defenses and the Tactical Fight

OPFOR air defense weapons and surveillance systems at all levels of command are part of an integrated air defense system (IADS). This ability provides a continuous, unbroken (usually overlapping) umbrella of air defense coverage and presents a significant threat to any potential enemy air activity.

Organization

Each level of command with air defense assets has its own IADS. This system is capable of passing early warning, acquisition, tracking, and firing data—

• Upward to higher-echelon IADS.
• Horizontally to adjacent IADS.
• Down to the lowest levels of air defense radars and maneuver units.

Use of IADS enables the OPFOR to mass the effects of air defense assets from dispersed sites to protect the most critical targets. It also facilitates the use of passive air defense techniques, including dispersal, deception, and camouflage. The ability of the OPFOR air defense and maneuver units to receive early warning, target acquisition, tracking, and firing data remotely from the dispersed radars significantly reduces the physical and electronic signature of air defense systems.

Sectors

The OPFOR recognizes that it is unlikely to be able to defend its entire airspace adequately. Therefore, it must establish priorities to ensure denser coverage of key assets or areas. These priorities may change during the course of combat, as the tactical, operational, or strategic situation changes. The OPFOR is prepared to adapt its air defense operations and tactics to use IADS at sector levels. Within sectors, the OPFOR may be able to challenge even the most modern air forces, at least initially, and perhaps temporarily prevent them from attaining air supremacy.

The OPFOR offsets limitations of sector defense by overlapping sector coverage, and by employing an IADS at each echelon above battalion level. A division or division tactical group (DTG) IADS divides its area into overlapping sectors for subordinate brigade or brigade tactical group (BTG) IADS. In most cases, a tactical air defense sector will overlap other tactical IADS sectors, and will be within the larger sector of an operational-strategic command (OSC).

In choosing to fight within sectors, the OPFOR accepts risks, since air defense sectors present seams in the defenses and may be unable to provide mutual support. On the other hand, sector air defense can help reduce the physical and electronic signature of defensive systems. It can also enable the OPFOR to mass the effects from dispersed sites to protect critical targets within sectors. Within air defense sectors, the OPFOR develops air defense ambushes along the most likely air avenues of approach.

Phases

Essential to integration and successful employment at the strategic and operational level is the use of three phases. The phases are defined by where the enemy aircraft are and what they are doing:

• Phase I. Actions against enemy aircraft and control systems on the ground before they are employed. This phase is conducted using primarily strategic- and operational-level assets of the Army and the Air Force.
• Phase II. Actions against enemy aircraft while in flight but before they enter the airspace over OPFOR ground maneuver forces. Again, this mission is performed primarily at the strategic and operational levels.
• Phase III. Actions against enemy aircraft that have penetrated into the airspace over OPFOR ground maneuver forces. Thus, the “target area” consists of the area where enemy aircraft have penetrated over the OPFOR disruption, battle, and support zones. OSC-level tactical fighters and the short- to medium-range surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), antiaircraft (AA) guns, and other weapons of the ground maneuver units execute this phase. It is in this phase that ground-based tactical air defense plays its primary role.

For additional information on the phases of the air defense, see FM 7-100.1.

Command and Control

The intent of IADS is for air defense forces at all levels of command to create a continuous, unbroken umbrella of air defense coverage. An integrated communications system provides target information and early warning to air defense and ground maneuver units. Integration is both vertical and horizontal. Vertical integration is between the strategic, operational, and tactical levels, while horizontal integration is within each of these levels. Enemy capabilities may present a situation where a totally integrated system at the strategic and or operational level is neither possible nor even desirable (see FM 7-100.1).

At the tactical level, the commander normally strives to achieve horizontal integration. His ability to integrate or be integrated vertically will depend on the air defense course of action taken at the next- higher level.

Centralized Versus Decentralized Air Defense

Air defense command and control (C2) relationships are subject to conflicting pressures for centralization and decentralization. Factors favoring the former include greater efficiency and effectiveness of centralized target detection systems and the increased ranges of modern SAM systems. Factors favoring the latter include the need for flexibility to support fast-paced operations by maneuver units and the many contingencies that can arise in local situations.

Centralized control is necessary, especially during defense, to ensure that the coverage of air defense units is mutually supporting and comprehensive. Without centralization at some level, the air defense umbrella does not exist, and target tip-off will not be received. At the same time, decentralized control is required, since OPFOR air defense commanders are expected to demonstrate aggressive action and originality, responding to changes in the tactical situation and operating effectively when cut off from communications with other air defense units.

Even with a decentralized control, the ability to receive information concerning inbound enemy aircraft is essential. This may be accomplished by air defense data link or other automated communications such as battlefield management systems, or simply radio or telephone communications passing essential information on enemy aircraft. With or without centralized control, information from human intelligence (HUMINT) sources can be quite valuable.

Duties and Responsibilities

At all levels above the maneuver battalion, air defense is directed by the chief of airspace operations (CAO). However, the unit commander is ultimately responsible for the success or failure of these operations. For example, during the planning phase, a division or brigade commander (assisted by the CAO and force protection staff officers) personally directs the deployment of his air defense weapons to support his mission and establishes priorities and procedures for logistics support. At the  maneuver battalion level, the battalion commander has overall responsibility for the organization and conduct of air defense.

On the primary staff at division, DTG, brigade, and BTG level, the operations section is responsible for air defense. Within that section is the airspace operations subsection (AOS), headed by the CAO. This subsection does the planning and insures that those plans are executed within the commander’s intent. The AOS is assisted in this effort by the force protection staff element. It is the force protection staff element that receives liaison teams from constituent, dedicated, and supporting air defense units associated with the division, DTG, brigade, or BTG.

At division, DTG, brigade, and BTG, the commander of the air defense units at that level has the following duties and responsibilities:

• Organize, plan, and conduct the air defense of the organization.
• Prepare recommendations on the employment of air defense assets.
• Contribute to the maneuver commander’s decisionmaking process.
• Know the situation, status, and capabilities of air defense units at any stage of the battle.
• Issue orders to air defense units and staffs of subordinate units.
• Direct the regrouping of forces during the battle.
• Coordinate logistics support of air defense units.
• Establish coordination between air defense units.
• Organize communications.
• Provide liaison to the division, DGT, brigade, or BTG staff.
• Monitor the execution of orders.
• Assist subordinate units and staffs.

In most situations, an OSC commander can direct the employment of the air defense assets of at least his immediate tactical-level subordinates—divisions and DTGs or separate brigades or BTGs. The OSC may also allocate air defense assets down to DTG, BTG, or even battalion-size detachment if the conditions warrant. Brigades and BTGs that are part of a division or DTG provide coverage for their own units and vertically integrate with division or DTG coverage. When not part of a division or DTG, they vertically integrate with OSC-level coverage, which would be part of their next higher level of command. There may be skip-echelon situations when the OSC will specify how divisional maneuver brigades or BTGs employ their air defense battalions. Normally, however, the division or DTG will dictate that.

The division or DTG can dictate how maneuver brigades or BTGs employ their air defense battalions and/or may allocate air defense assets down to cover gaps. Finally, the maneuver brigade’s or BTG’s air defense commander has overall responsibility for the coordinated air defense coverage and administrative control of the man-portable air defense system (MANPADS) platoons constituent to the maneuver battalions.

Command Posts and Communications

Every air defense unit above platoon level (and sometimes at that level) has an  air defense command post (CP). That CP serves as the mechanism for linking surveillance, fire control, weapons, and support activities. The division air defense CP normally colocates with the division staff at the division main CP. Many CPs also have colocated air surveillance radar, sometimes mounted on a command vehicle, to perform air defense battle management on site. A communications vehicle and staff vehicles are usually colocated with the CP for support. Most air defense batteries and some air defense platoons have CPs (often armored command or command and reconnaissance vehicles).

The division, DTG, brigade, or BTG CAO and his staff in the AOS normally colocate with the main CP at that level of command. The AOS is responsible for airspace management. (See chapter 10 for more information on airspace management, CAO, and AOS.) An AOS staff member is located at the forward CP to represent the CAO and advise the maneuver commander.

The OPFOR IADS includes an integrated communications system that provides early warning and targeting information to all air defense and ground maneuver units. If dedicated  air  defense communications with other air defense units fail, commanders switch to other communications means and use their own initiative and flexibility, in order to adapt to frequent changes in the ground or air situation.

Enemy jamming of dedicated data links does not necessarily stop the IADS from passing necessary information to the air defense and ground maneuver units. Information obtained by components of the IADS is generally directly transmitted using the IADS network. In a backup situation, however, it can be also be transmitted by numerous other methods such as—

• Automated battlefield information systems.
• Radio (voice and/or Morse code).
• Satellite communications.
• Data transmission.
• Cellular phone.
• Telephone.
• Fiber optic cable or hard wire if located in proximity (or relayed via switchboard).
• Retransmission.
• Any other real time (or even near-real time) methods.

Sufficient early warning or tracking data used in a backup situation only needs to be basic information about the enemy aircraft. The air defense unit only requires actionable information such as time, bearing, range, speed, altitude/height, and aircraft type (if possible). This simple data is sufficient for the receiving radar to determine exactly where and when to look and the appropriate time to turn on his radar in order to track and fire. Air defense assets may also be positioned close enough together to be hardwired.

The OPFOR has the ability for its lowest air defense and maneuver units to receive air defense information remotely relayed from the most powerful high-level surveillance systems. This enables OPFOR air defense units to operate with the radar turned off and still receive sufficient information to track and fire on approaching enemy aircraft within their respective sectors. It provides several levels of redundancy, which prevents the enemy from breaking the systems integration by merely knocking out one (or several) radar and/or communications means.

The basic rule for the establishment of communications between supported and supporting unit is that the higher command allocates landline, radio relay, and mobile communication means, while radio equipment is allocated by both higher and subordinate levels. This ensures proper coordination of communications. If communication is lost, the commanders and staffs of all units involved are responsible for the immediate restoration of communication. Redundant communications systems with multiple operating frequencies are often available to assure communications integrity even under electronic warfare (EW) conditions. A multi-aspect attack warning system sends immediate alarm of incoming enemy aircraft to maneuver units, the staffs, and logistics units. The warning is communicated through signal equipment that is specially allocated for this purpose. Within air defense organizations, alerts are sent via acoustic signal and graphic computer display, and on portable azimuth displays (plotting boards).

Airspace Management

The OSC is the lowest level of joint command with control of both Army and Air Force units. Under the operations officer on every staff from OSC down to brigade and BTG level, the CAO is responsible for airspace management issues and procedures. The CAO maintains the airspace control net for controlling the command’s airspace and all related matters. These headquarters typically receive liaison teams from all constituent, dedicated, and supporting Air Force, army aviation, and air defense units associated with the command. An OSC headquarters allocated Air Force assets would also receive an Air Force liaison team. All these units and their liaison teams are on the airspace control net. For additional information on airspace management, see FM 7-100.1.

To reduce air-to-ground coordination problems during the execution of tactical  missions, the OPFOR employs proactive staff elements and control measures. Primarily, the OPFOR employs a system of identification, friend or foe (IFF) between aircraft and air defense systems. To protect friendly aircraft from fratricide from non-IFF-capable systems, strict procedural controls are enacted that separate airspace horizontally, vertically, or both. This buffer zone minimizes the possibility of fratricide while maximizing ordnance effects. For specifics concerning airspace coordination procedures and zones, see chapter 10.

Unless otherwise notified, air defense weapons consider the airspace a “free fire” zone and will fire on all aircraft. “If you fly, you die” is the OPFOR default. The air defense coverage may be temporarily “switched off” to allow friendly aircraft to pass on a mission planned in advance and then “switched on” as they exit the area. For other missions, air defense coverage may allow aircraft to transit only on “safe corridors” based on air routes or other procedural methods. If aircraft deviate from these coordinated areas, they will be shot down by friendly ground force units. The OPFOR views the possible loss of aircraft through fratricide as a lesser risk than allowing gaps in its radar and air defense coverage that the enemy might exploit. See also chapter 10 for more information on airspace coordination and management.

Airspace coordination is critical to those ground maneuver units and others using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Otherwise, they stand a very good chance of losing the UAVs. Due to the proliferation of UAVs in recent years, coordination responsibility has reached very-low-level tactical units. If an OPFOR air defense unit acquires an unidentified UAV, it will shoot it down. That is because the enemy is also likely to be using UAVs. The unit launching the UAV must coordinate with the appropriate AOS or CAO prior to launching. Maneuver battalions may have a forward air controller (FAC) assigned to coordinate with supporting air elements and air defense units. In the event the maneuver battalion does not have a designated FAC, the battalion operations officer will facilitate the coordination. Maneuver companies will notify their parent battalion when the company plans to launch UAVs.

It is imperative that air defense units be notified when friendly aircraft (or UAVs) are flying within the air defense umbrella. Failure to coordinate with these elements will result in fratricide. The senior air defender in the command is responsible for airspace deconfliction and the notification of air defense units.

Air Surveillance

Air surveillance is the key factor in guaranteeing the earliest possible warning of impending enemy air attack. It is conducted by electronic and electro-optical means and by visual observation. Radar is used for technical surveillance, providing all-weather detection capability. EW systems, acoustic systems, unattended ground and aerial sensors, and other assets are used to provide early warning of aircraft activities and alert air defense systems to engage air targets. Although this chapter primarily addresses ground-based air defense at the tactical level, the addition of UAVs in tactical organizations provides organic aerial surveillance for various roles, which can include air defense.

Ground-based and airborne air surveillance assets at the operational level play a major role in gathering, integrating, and disseminating information to tactical units. The objective is to establish a system that not only provides the earliest possible warning of approaching enemy aircraft but also develops target information sufficient to plan and conduct effective air defense.

OPFOR tactical air defense units receive preliminary early warning target data passed from higher- level or adjacent radar units to air defense commanders and their firing batteries via automatic data links or other communications. This practice reduces the vulnerability of battery radars and radar-equipped gun carriages and missile launchers to jamming or destruction. Ideally, only those aircraft that have been positively identified as hostile will be engaged.

Sensors

Sensors are a critical component of air defense systems. They perform surveillance and tracking functions against fleeting air targets. The primary target detection and acquisitions means for air defense units are radars. Radars can more easily detect and track aircraft with less operator input than other sensors. However, many detection and acquisition packages are sensor suites using multiple sensors, including acoustics, optics, and electro-optics.

Radars

Air defense units employ a mix of radar systems operating at different frequencies, in varied intervals and with overlapping coverage. Radars fall into the general categories of surveillance and fire control. Surveillance radars include early warning, target acquisition, and height-finding radars, while some perform all of these roles. Air defense unit target acquisition radars can acquire and track targets and assign them to the fire control system for engagement. Some fire control radars also have a limited target acquisition capability. Dual-mode radars perform both functions simultaneously. (For  additional information on the technical capabilities of air defense radars, see the Worldwide Equipment Guide.)

The OPFOR is fielding more modern mobile radar systems with the ability to quickly employ radars or operate radars while moving. Early warning radars with long-range capability detect approaching aircraft and cue the IADS. The IADS identifies air targets and assigns its own target acquisition radars to acquire and track aerial targets. Then it assigns an air defense unit to engage those targets. Some air defense surveillance radars can perform both early warning and target acquisition roles.

Units containing older radars (requiring some operational down time for maintenance) generally use at least two radars that are set up at critical terrain points to insure continuous overlapping coverage. Usually only one radar will move at a time. To reduce the likelihood of detection by enemy electronic intelligence (ELINT), the radars on tactical air defense systems may not be operated unless the requirement for their use outweighs the risk of detection. Radars are emplaced to provide integrated overlapping cover to prevent air attack against any single radar. Overlapping coverage ensures any aircraft attacking a radar will be covered by at least one radar and possibly several radars. The data transmitted by the covering radars allows several air defense systems to fire on the attackers.

An example of the integration of multiple sensors is the air defense brigade subordinate to a division. It contains an early warning/target acquisition battery that includes—

• Early warning, target acquisition, and possibly height-finding radars.
• IFF interrogators.
• Communications vehicles.
• CPs.

The surveillance section of the battery provides redundancy in that it can take over the CP function in an emergency. If required (especially while covering a moving unit), the commander may receive additional radars from higher level. One is usually placed at the forward portion of the moving unit and the other with the main body.

Other Electronic and Electro-Optical Sensors

Some OPFOR air defense weapons are integrated with passive sensors, such as—

• Optics.
• Electro-optics.
• TV cameras.
• Night-vision sights.
• Auto-trackers.
• Laser rangefinders.
• Acoustic sensors.

Multiple units are simultaneously alerted on aircraft approach for overlapping sector coverage. Azimuth warning systems, such as azimuth displays and plotting boards of dismounted guns or MANPADS teams are also alerted.

Acoustic sensors include acoustic arrays, both stationary and vehicle-mounted. Passive sensor systems can also include acoustic-triggered unattended ground sensors.

Air approach alarms are available for tactical ground force units, and may be linked to MANPADS teams. Most of these alarms provide bearing and range. Night sights are also now common on MANPADS, AA guns, and other air defense equipment. The OPFOR uses all types of infrared devices to detect “hot spots” and subsequently tip off other acquisition means to acquire and begin tracking the aircraft. For additional information on equipment, see the Worldwide Equipment Guide.

Visual Observation

An effective system of visual surveillance often provides the first warning of an enemy air attack. This is especially true of attacks conducted by low-flying aircraft or armed helicopters using nap-of-the- earth (NOE) techniques. When operating close to enemy forces or in areas where enemy air attack is considered likely, all units post air observers to continually observe the sky. Observers may also use hand- held or vehicle-mounted optics, electro-optics, and laser rangefinders, and unattended or remote sensors. Despite the presence of a technologically advanced early warning system, the OPFOR continues to stress the importance of visual surveillance. This is especially true at the small unit levels.

In the defense, air observation posts (air OPs) are set up at suitable locations, usually on terrain offering good visibility, near CPs, and/or close to air defense units in firing positions. During tactical movement and during both the defense and offense, observers are posted on each vehicle. Observers are changed frequently to reduce fatigue and maintain their effectiveness.

Visual air surveillance is conducted on a 360-degree basis, and observers are assigned sectors of airspace to monitor. OPFOR air defense units realize that an aircraft can be visually detected at ranges of 2 to 5 km when the observer is assigned a 60- to 90-degree sector of observation, and at ranges of 6 to 7 km when assigned a 30-degree sector. Naturally, these distances are affected by terrain and lighting conditions. The use of binoculars can increase detection ranges to approximately 12 km. Aircraft can be observed much further (30+ km) when using modern electro-optical equipment. Aircraft flying at high altitudes may be detected at ranges up to 50 km when more sophisticated optical rangefinding equipment is used.

To visually observe activity at enemy airfields in or near the area of responsibility  (AOR), whenever possible, the OPFOR makes extensive use of—

• Special-purpose forces (SPF) teams.
• Human intelligence (HUMINT) agents.
• Sympathetic civilians.
• Affiliated irregular forces.
• Any combination of these.

These observers report by radio or telephone the number and types of aircraft taking off or seen, and their direction of travel. Other observers stationed along probable approach routes can monitor and report the progress of the enemy aircraft en route to their targets. The OPFOR also prefers to establish complete early warning “sky watch/air observation” networks using local civilian personnel. This information, combined with electronic tip-off from radar units, enables OPFOR air defense units to leave their radars turned off and still be able to detect, track, and (with some systems) fire on incoming enemy aircraft.

Every tactical air defense battalion has a subordinate air observer platoon (AOP). This is a specialized high-mobility unit designed to fill or close gaps in tactical air defense coverage. This platoon becomes especially critical during a dispersed fight. While the AOP typically engages with enemy units only in self-defense, it is equipped with a laser designator to lase high-value targets such as forward arming and refueling points (FARPs). Another common tactic is for air defense ambush teams (MANPADS or AA guns) to accompany the AOP while they are en route to conduct an ambush. Prior to deployment, the AOP conducts a map terrain analysis of friendly radar coverage. The resultant analytical overlay provides the AOP critical locations to surveil based on radar terrain masking. Based on this, the air defense ambush teams are dropped off to provide air coverage while the AOP continues farther away to provide early warning. This platoon and/or its subordinate squads are routinely suballocated to maneuver units.

Every maneuver brigade has a subordinate reconnaissance company. A primary mission of this reconnaissance unit is to provide early warning of any enemy air activity. Within this reconnaissance company are several specialized long-range and high-mobility reconnaissance platoons. Each of these platoons is designed to range across the disruption and battle zones and report any enemy air activity. For specific details on the organization structure, see FM 7-100.4.

Air defense assets available to the tactical commander are a blend of air defense units  and combined arms units using weapons well suited in the air defense role. Commanders must properly integrate these assets into a system (IADS) and make them an integral part of mission planning and execution.

Organizations

The OPFOR ground force structure includes air defense units. These units are equipped with a variety of systems having the firepower, mobility, and range to fully support fast-moving tank and mechanized forces in dynamic offensive operations. For information on organizational assets and equipment above the tactical level (OSC and above) and IADS, see FM 7-100.1. For specifics on tactical organizations, see FM 7-100.4.

Divisions

Most maneuver divisions contain at least an air defense brigade. The brigade is fully capable of providing air defense coverage for the entire division. Divisions can be assigned to create task-organized division tactical groups (DTGs). When this occurs, consideration must be given to allocating additional air defense assets to ensure protection of the augmented force. In some situations, the DTG may be allocated assets normally associated with operational-level organizations. The division or DTG commander also has the option of further allocating or task-organizing some, or all, of these assets to subordinate units.

Divisional and Separate Brigades

Like the division, maneuver brigades may be task-organized as brigade tactical groups (BTGs) and may require additional air defense assets to protect newly allocated units. Divisional maneuver brigades contain organic air defense assets, usually an air defense battalion. Separate brigades may contain a more robust air defense battalion. Depending on a number of circumstances, BTGs formed from either type of brigade may also have additional assets either at the brigade level or allocated down to their assigned battalions. However, separate brigades typically contain a more robust capability than divisional brigades, even without augmentation. Thus, air defense augmentation of a separate brigade (task-organized as a BTG) may be the equivalent of an air defense brigade.

Battalions

Maneuver battalions can be task-organized as detachments to perform a specific mission. When assigning air defense assets to battalions forming detachments, brigade planners need to pay special attention to the command and support relationships they assign (see chapter 2).

Maneuver battalions typically have a MANPADS platoon for self-protection. Other air defense assets may also be allocated to the battalion. The platoon leader of the MANPADS platoon (or the senior air defender) also coordinates with the appropriate staff member, or FAC if present, to deconflict any possible fratricide issues.

Companies

The MANPADS platoon at battalion may be retained at battalion level, or the battalion may allocate its MANPADS squads down to maneuver company level. Most OPFOR tactical vehicles are equipped at least with a 7.62-mm general-purpose machinegun that can engage enemy aircraft in addition to ground targets. All OPFOR units receive training in the employment of massed small arms weapons fire to engage low-flying enemy aircraft. This technique is routinely practiced by troop units and is usually employed under the supervision of the company commander when he has been notified that an enemy aircraft is approaching. For additional information, see All-Arms Air Defense below.

Weapons

The OPFOR force structure includes a wide variety of weapons providing ground force commanders outstanding firepower for air defense. Air defense planning must consider and employ all assets available, across all arms to achieve maximum firepower.

Air Defense Weapons

The OPFOR inventory of tactical ground-based air defense weapons includes a variety of missiles, guns, and support equipment. Tactical-level air defense includes short- and medium-range SAMs, short- range AA guns, and MANPADS. Tactical air defense assets are increasingly using combination AA gun and missile systems, offering added flexibility and quick and lethal engagement of all aerial targets, especially low level targets. The OPFOR’s tactical air defenses support the need to protect ground forces and the desire to seize any opportunity to shoot down high-visibility (flagship) enemy airframes.

The assets contained in the division’s air defense units are capable of providing the commander with area defense, point defense where required, and ground to medium-altitude coverage. Their mission is to protect the division’s maneuver elements and other units within its AOR. Assets redeploy as necessary to maintain coverage of advancing forces. Many systems are capable of providing air surveillance on the move and launching from a short halt to respond to detected enemy aircraft. They can also displace by pairs or as batteries and halt in intervals to provide coverage of the force as it moves. Some air defense weapons, such as MANPADS, can be fired while on the move.

Nearly all self-propelled AA guns can fire on the move with passive electro-optical fire control systems. Some still only have optical sights. Others have onboard radars that can operate on the move, or in seconds with a short halt. Most have an alert system with sufficient warning to ambush approaching aircraft. Aside from short-range air defense, AA guns also can be employed against all but the heaviest of enemy ground force systems, as well as against personnel, with devastating effects. Some typical infantry weapons such as the automatic grenade launcher, machinegun, and recoilless rifle are also equipped with ballistic fire computers and radars. All are extremely lethal in the air defense role.

A variety of relatively new systems, which significantly enhance air defense capabilities, have entered the OPFOR inventory. These include but are not limited to remote helicopter infrared sensing devices and passive acoustic acquisition systems. Antihelicopter mines are widely available and increase the OPFOR ability to deny low-altitude approaches, firing positions, and landing sites to enemy rotary- wing aircraft.

All-Arms Air Defense

The OPFOR recognizes that air defense is an all-arms effort. Thus, all OPFOR units possess some type of an organic air defense capability to differing degrees, depending on the type and size of the unit. The OPFOR continuously looks for new and adaptive ways of employing not only air defense systems but also systems not traditionally associated with air defense. Many OPFOR weapons not designed as air defense weapons will also damage and/or destroy tactical aircraft when within range.

Throughout maneuver units, there are a number of systems designed for air defense and other systems that can be used in an air defense role. The heavy AA machineguns on tanks are specifically designed for air defense. Machineguns on APCs and automatic cannon on IFVs can engage both ground and air targets. Most antitank guided missiles (ATGMs) are extremely effective against low-flying helicopters. Several ATGM manufacturers offer antihelicopter missiles and compatible fire control, which are especially effective against low-flying rotary-wing aircraft. Field artillery and small arms can also be integral parts of the air defense scheme. All these weapons can be extremely lethal when used in this role.

Many maneuver units have modified selected infantry vehicles into fire support vehicles, specially equipped for multiple-role use with cannons, ATGMs, and MANPADS. These vehicles are employed in air defense or antitank platoons, which carry dismount teams with missiles to engage aerial and other targets. Some MANPADS and their vehicle-mounted versions are capable of antitarmor roles as well as air defense. The OPFOR attempts to adapt these systems and develop new tactics that may help to fill the void when a specific capability is denied by a more sophisticated enemy.

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Note. Some air defense systems also lend themselves to multiple roles. An example of this capability is the Starstreak High Velocity Missile, which is available in vehicle-mounted and man-portable configurations. Although designed as a hypervelocity MANPADS with a range of over 7 km in an air defense role, the Starstreak can also penetrate vehicles with over 4 inches of armor at the same range. It is a high-precision missile and is countermeasure resistant, with laser beam-rider guidance. Starstreak has a very high probability of hit against less maneuverable aircraft, especially helicopters conducting terrain flying such as NOE. Hypervelocity speed permits destruction of an aircraft at 7-km range in about 5 seconds, and denies the aircraft time to engage targets or evade or counter the missile. This combination gives multipurpose weapons like the Starstreak a permanent place in the ground role as well as air defense weapons.

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The OPFOR considers every soldier with a MANPADS to be an air defense firing unit. These weapons are readily available at a relatively low cost and are widely proliferated. Therefore the OPFOR is acquiring as many MANPADS as possible and issues them in large numbers to a wide variety of units. It can also disseminate them to selected affiliated forces. The small size and easy portability of these systems provides the opportunity for ambush of enemy airframes operating in any area near OPFOR units. The OPFOR also employs them to set ambushes for enemy helicopters, especially those on routine logistics missions.

To counter the helicopter threat, a wide variety of tactical and combat support vehicles have MANPADs or machineguns with AA sights to engage aircraft. Two of the greatest advantages of helicopters are weapons stand-off and ability to use terrain cover on approach. Many ground force and air defense weapons can match the stand-off and inflict damage to force aircraft to disengage. When flying in an NOE mode (20 to 25 ft above ground level), a helicopter rotor is approximately 40 ft off the ground. A helicopter flying NOE cannot easily engage targets or evade missiles, and it be easily targeted by ground weapons. Nearly all SAMs, small arms, direct-fire crew weapons, ATGMs, antitank grenade launchers, automatic grenade launchers, and machineguns can engage it.

Anti-helicopter mines can be placed on likely enemy helicopter firing positions. This area can then be left unattended. The technique can be used at sights to economize assets. For additional information on anti-helicopter mines see, Air Defense Ambushes and Roving Units below.

OPFOR maneuver squads and above are routinely trained to use their weapons to engage tactical aircraft and have incorporated the engagement techniques into their tactics, techniques, and procedures. Below are typical examples of these weapons and their air defense capabilities: