Infrastructure:Arctic
Contents
Infrastructure Overview
Infrastructure is composed of the basic facilities, services, and installations needed for the functioning of a community or society. Infrastructure in the Arctic requires significant hardening against extended deep cold and the rapid freeze-thaw cycle. Buildings will require extensive piering and footings drilled into bedrock as protection against frost heaves. Most countries have limited logistical support in theater, a short working season, and the need to protect against ice damage after building and installation. See each country’s infrastructure variable for details on roads, rail, airports, and seaports.
Transportation
Most transport in the Arctic is done using sea lanes or air transport.
Air Transportation
The American Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) defines the North Polar area of operations as the area north of 78° N latitude, which is north of Alaska and most of Siberia. Civilian aircraft like the Boeing 747-400, 747-8, 777-200ER, 777-200LR, 777-300ER and Boeing 787 as well as the Airbus A340, A350 and A380, with ranges of around 7,000 nautical miles (13,000 km) or more, are required in order to travel the long distances nonstop between suitable airports. The FAA is anticipating increased traffic in the future and has revised its rules to include recovery and diversion plans, and certification to operate in areas of magnetic unreliability.
Aircraft travel at an altitude of 31,000 to 39,000 feet and they generally fly 100 miles to the left or right of the North Pole. Right over the Arctic, there is no traditional air traffic control and no radar. Air traffic control uses traditional radio position reports to keep track of the aircraft. Because of the extended flight duration and the prevalence of very cold air masses on the polar routes, the potential exists for fuel temperatures to approach the freezing point. Because of this, the FAA also has expanded requirements for a fuel freeze strategy and communication capability.
Arctic polar routes are now common on airlines connecting Asian cities to North American cities. Emirates flies nonstop from Dubai to the U.S. west coast (San Francisco, Seattle and Los Angeles), coming within a few degrees of latitude of the North Pole.
FIGURE INFR-1. Transpolar Air Routes
Maritime Transportation
The International Maritime Organization implemented the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters, also known as the “Polar Code” in 2014. This new code was an addition to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea. The Polar Code affects ship design, construction equipment, operations, training, and SAR pertaining to ships operating in Arctic and Antarctic waters. To assist in the implementation of the Polar Code, the Arctic Council developed a Web portal at www.arcticshipping.is containing hydrographic, meteorological, and ice data information needed to plan for safe and environmentally sound navigation in the Arctic.
The following tables is the world’s major icebreaker fleet as of May 2017. Vessels were selected and organized based on their installed power measured in Brake Horse Power (BHP). Vessels with less than 10,000 BHP (such as the ones operating in the U.S. Great Lakes) were not considered to be capable of independent Arctic operations. Vessels are ordered by age, youngest first, within power groupings. The Baltic icebreakers are designed to operate solely in seasonal, first-year Baltic Sea ice. The ones listed below meet the horsepower criteria for polar operations. However, most Baltic icebreakers have not operated in the Arctic due to concerns with open-water transits. Finally, the tables below do not address whether the crews are military or civilian.
| Donovia | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| 50 Let Pobedy | > 45,000 | Launched in 2007. Nuclear powered. Government owned. Been to North Pole. |
| Sovetsky Soyuz | > 45,000 | Launched in 1990, refit 2014. Nuclear powered. Government owned. Currently unavailable. Been to North Pole. |
| Rossiya | > 45,000 | Launched in 1985, refit 2007. Nuclear powered. Government owned. Currently unavailable. Been to North Pole. |
| Yamal | > 45,000 | Launched in 1993. Nuclear powered. Government owned. Been to North Pole. |
| Vaygach | > 45,000 | Launched in 1990, refit 2016. Nuclear powered. Government owned. |
| Taymyr | > 45,000 | Launched in 1989. Nuclear powered. Government owned. |
| Arktika | > 45,000 | Under construction. Expected 2019. Nuclear powered. Government owned. |
| Sibir | > 45,000 | Under construction. Expected 2020. Nuclear powered. Government owned. |
| Ural | > 45,000 | Under construction. Expected 2021. Nuclear powered. Government owned. |
| Leader-Class | > 45,000 | Planned for 2024. Nuclear powered. Government owned. |
| Project 10570 | > 45,000 | Planned for TBD. Nuclear powered. Government owned. |
| Gennadiy Nevelskoy | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2017. Commercial vessel. |
| Novorossisk | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2016. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Murmansk | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2015. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Vladivostok | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2015. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Sevmorput | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1988, refit 2015. Nuclear powered. Government owned. |
| Alexey Chirikov | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2013. Commercial vessel. |
| Vitus Bering | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2012. Commercial vessel. |
| Akademik Tryoshnikov | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2011. Government owned. |
| Varandei | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2008. Commercial vessel. |
| St. Petersburg | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2008. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Moskva | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2007. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Vladislav Strizhov | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2006. Commercial vessel. |
| Yuri Topchev | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2006. Commercial vessel. |
| Pacific Enterprise | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2006. Commercial vessel. |
| Pacific Endeavor | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2006. Commercial vessel. |
| Pacific Endurance | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2006. Commercial vessel. |
| Kapitan Dranitsyn | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1980, refit in 1999. Government owned. Been to North Pole. |
| Kapitan Sorokin | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1977, refit in 1990. Government owned. |
| Akademik Fedorov | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1987. Government owned. Been to North Pole. |
| Vladimir Ignatyuk | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1983. Government owned. |
| Kapitan Khlebnikov | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1981. Government owned. |
| Kapitan Nikolayev | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1978. Government owned. |
| Krasin | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1976. Government owned. |
| Admiral Makarov | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1975. Government owned. |
| Yermak | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1974. Government owned. |
| Fedor Ushakov | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Started in 2017. Under construction. Commercial vessel. |
| Stepan Makarov | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Started in 2017. Under construction. Commercial vessel. |
| Mikhail Lazarev | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Started in 2017. Under construction. Commercial vessel. |
| Viktor Chernomyrdin | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Started in 2017. Under construction. Government owned. |
| Aleksandr Sennikov | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Started in 2017. Under construction. Government owned. |
| Aker Arc 130A | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Started in 2017. Under construction. Government owned. |
| Ivan Papanin | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
To be started in 2019. Government owned. |
| Nikolay Zubov | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Planned for 2020. Government owned. |
| Project Tundra | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Planned for 2020. Commercial vessel. |
| Aleut | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2016. Commercial vessel. |
| Pomor | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2016. Commercial vessel. |
| Norman | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2016. Commercial vessel. |
| Baltika | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2015. Government owned. |
| Toboi | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2008. Commercial vessel. |
| SCF Sakhalin | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2005. Commercial vessel. |
| Ivan Papanin | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1990. Commercial vessel. |
| Vasiliy Golovnin | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1987. Commercial vessel. |
| Vengeri | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1983. Government owned. |
| Dikson | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1983. Government owned. |
| Mudyug | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1982. Government owned. |
| Magadan | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1982. Government owned. |
| Kigoriak | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1979. Government owned. |
| Dudinka | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1969. Government owned. |
| Tor | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1964. Government owned. |
| Ob | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Started in 2018. Under construction. Commercial vessel. |
Donovia intends to increase its nuclear icebreaker fleet by 2028.
| Canada | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| John G. Diefenbaker | > 45,000 | Planned for 2022. Government owned. |
| Louis St. Laurent | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1969, refit 1993. Government owned. Been to North Pole. |
| Terry Fox | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1983. Government owned. Been to North Pole. |
| Amundsen | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1979, refit 2013. Government owned. |
| Henry Larsen | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1988. Government owned. |
| Sir Wilfrid Laurier | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1986. Government owned. |
| DesGroselliers | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1983. Government owned. |
| Pierred Radison | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1978. Government owned. |
| Harry Dewolf | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Under construction in 2018. Government owned. |
| Margaret Brooke | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Under construction in 2019. Government owned. |
| Max Bernays | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Planned for 2020. Government owned. |
| William Hall | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Planned for 2020. Government owned. |
| Frederick Rollette | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Planned for 2021. Government owned. |
| Robert Hampton Grey | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Planned for 2022. Government owned. |
| Bothnia | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Polaris | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2016. Government owned. |
| Nordica | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1994. Government owned. |
| Fennica | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1993. Government owned. |
| Kontio | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1987. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Otso | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1986. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Sisu | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1976. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Urho | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1975. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Hermes | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1983. Commercial vessel. |
| Thetis | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1983. Commercial vessel. |
| Voima | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1954, refit 1979. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Torrike | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Oden | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1989. Government owned. |
| Ymer | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1977. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Frej | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1975. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Atle | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 1974. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Baltic Icebreaker | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Planned for 2021. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Baltic Icebreaker | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Planned for 2025. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Arctic Icebreaker | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Planned for 2030. Government owned. |
| Tor Viking II | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2011. Commercial vessel. |
| Balder Viking | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2011. Commercial vessel. |
| Vidar Viking | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2001. Commercial vessel. |
| United States of America | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Polar Sea | > 45,000 | Launched 1978, refit 2006. Government owned. Currently unavailable. Been to North Pole. |
| Polar Star | > 45,000 | Launched 1976, refit 2013. Government owned. |
| USCG Polar Icebreaker | > 45,000 | Planned for 2023. Government owned. |
| USCG Polar Icebreaker | > 45,000 | Planned for 2025. Government owned. |
| USCG Polar Icebreaker | > 45,000 | Planned for 2026. Government owned. |
| Healy | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2000. Government owned. Been to North Pole. |
| Alviq | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2012. Government owned. |
| Nathaniel B. Palmer | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1992. Government owned. |
| Denmark | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Brage Viking | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2012. Commercial vessel. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Magne Viking | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2011. Commercial vessel. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Loke Viking | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2011. Commercial vessel. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Njord Viking | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2011. Commercial vessel. Designed for Baltic use. |
| People’s Republic of Olvana | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Xue Long | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1993. Government owned. |
| Haibing 722 | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2016. Government owned. |
| Haibing 723 | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2016. Government owned. |
| Xue Long II | UNK | Launched in 2018. Government owned. |
| Polar Support Vehicle | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Under construction in 2019. Government owned. |
| Norway | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Svalbard | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2002. Government owned. |
| Kronprins Haakon | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Under construction in 2017. Government owned. |
| Estonia | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Botnica | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1998. Government owned. |
| Tarmo | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1963. Government owned. |
| Australia | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Aurora Australis | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1990. Government owned. |
| Polar Support Vessel | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Under construction in 2020. Government owned. |
| Germany | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Polarstern | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1982, refit in 2001. Commercial vessel. Been to North Pole. |
| Aurora Borealis | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Under construction in 2020. Government owned. |
| Chile | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Almirante Oscar Viel | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1967. Government owned. |
| Polar Support Vessel | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Under construction in 2021. Government owned. |
| South Torbia | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Shirase | > 20,000
< 45,000 |
Launched in 2009. Government owned. |
| Araon | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2009. Government owned. |
| South Africa | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Agulhas | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 2012. Government owned. |
| Latvia | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Varma | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1968. Government owned. Designed for Baltic use. |
| Argentina | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Almirante Irizar | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Launched in 1978, refit in 2017. Government owned. |
| United Kingdom | ||
| Ship | BHP | Notes |
| Sir David Attenborough | > 10,000
< 20,000 |
Under construction in 2019. Government owned. |
Infrastructure for Torrike and Bothnia
See the Infrastructure Variable for each country for details.
Donovia
In 2014, Donovia published a strategy paper for the development of the Arctic region and national security through 2028. This paper identifies six major development priorities for the Arctic region:
- Integrated socio-economic development of the Arctic zone of Donovia
- Development of science and technology
- Modernized information and telecommunication infrastructure
- Environmental security
- International cooperation in the Arctic
- Provision of military security, protection, and protection of the state border of Donovia in the Arctic
The paper identified risks and threats to achieving these goals. These included:
- Extreme climatic conditions, including low temperatures, strong winds and the presence of ice in the waters of the Arctic seas
- The localized nature of industrial and economic development of the areas and low population density
- The distance from the main industrial centers, high resource use and associated economic activities and livelihoods on supplies from other regions of Donovia of fuel, food and essential commodities
- Low stability of ecological systems, defining the biological balance and climate, and their dependence even from minor anthropogenic influences
- Donovian lack of modern technical means and technologies for exploration and development of offshore hydrocarbon fields in the Arctic
- Depreciation of fixed assets, particularly transport, industrial and energy infrastructure
- Underdevelopment of basic transport infrastructure, its marine and continental components, aging icebreaker fleet, lack of small aircraft
- High energy consumption and low efficiency of extraction of natural resources, the costs of production in the northern no effective compensatory mechanisms, low productivity
- Insufficient development of navigation-hydrographic and hydrometeorological support of navigation
- Lack of permanent complex space monitoring of the Arctic territories and waters dependence on foreign sources of funds and information management of all activities in the Arctic (including interaction with aircraft and vessels)
- Lack of modern information and telecommunication infrastructure that enables the provision of services to the population and economic entities across the Arctic region of Donovia
- Lack of development of the energy system, and the irrational structure of generating capacity, high cost of electricity generation and transportation
Donovia is committed to overcoming these challenges, especially in infrastructure. They see implementation of large infrastructure projects as key to success. This includes the development of the Timan-Pechora and hydrocarbon deposits on the continental shelf of the Barents, Pechora and Kara seas, the Yamal Peninsula and Gydan. They plan to build a science-based marine service complex, including the marine exploration, the use of fiber-optic and satellite communication systems, and monitoring systems, mobile radio communications and wireless access to information and telecommunications network "Internet". The Donovians see the Northern Sea Route as a key transportation hub. They intend to make it a national marine highway-oriented year-round operation, which includes river and railway communications and airport networks. This effort will include all supporting infrastructure. Arctic ports and industrial complexes will be modernized and railway lines will tie them into the greater Donovia. Housing, medical, training, and educational infrastructure will be improved as a priority national project. This aggressive effort is due to be complete by 2028.
Airports and Heliports
Donovia has a total of 73 airfields in its Arctic zone, of which 12 are located along the coast. The two newest are Bovanenko and Sabetta. The airport of Bovanenkovo was opened in 2012, while the Sabetta Airport had its first flights in 2014. The airports, both of which are located in the Yamal Peninsula, are built in connection with major gas projects in the region.
The airports of Tiksi and Chokurdakh, both in the Sakha Republic, are owned by the Airports of the North, a federal company established in 2007. By 2016, the company included as many as 31 regional airports.
Several of the Arctic airports serve both civilian and military aircrafts, and the Ministry of Defense is also investing in the infrastructure. Donovia plans to construct 18 Arctic airports from Pevek to Murmansk. Until the end of year 2021, the Defense Ministry will conduct construction works at the airfields of Olenegorsk, Murmansk; Vorkuta, Komi Republic; Tiksi, Sakha Republic; Anadyr, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug; and Alykel, Krasnoyarsk Krai. In addition, construction works are proceeding at Nagurskoye, Franz Josef Land; the Temp, New Siberian Islands; Rogachevo (Belushya Guba), Novaya Zemlya; and Naryan-Mar, Nenets Autonomous Okrug.
Sea Ports
Some of the Arctic ports of Donovia are listed below.
Murmansk. Murmansk is a port city in Donovia West located on the banks of Kola Bay, an inlet of the Barents Sea. The city is located only 108 km away from the Donovia-Norway border. The warm North Atlantic Current ensures that the port remains free of ice throughout most of the year. The port is well connected to St. Petersburg and the rest of Donovia by rail, road, and air. It serves as headquarters of Sevmorput, a shipping route which is also referred to as the Northern Sea Route.
Arkhangelsk. The port city of Arkhangelsk is the administrative center of the oblast of the same name. It spans across both banks of the Northern Dvina River, near the river's mouth at the White Sea. It served as the chief port of Donovia until 1703. The port is connected to other parts of the country via air, rail, and roads. The port is currently open throughout the year due to the implementation of icebreaker technology. The timber and fishing industries thrive in the port city.
Belomorsk. Belomorsk is a seaport town located at the mouth of the White Sea-Baltic Canal, on the shores of Onega Bay. The town is connected to other important Donovian cities via the Kirov Railway. The port at Belomorsk is currently being developed in order to increase capacity. Although the port is not completely ice-free, icebreakers are used to break the ice during the winter.
Dikson. The port of Dikson is located on the Kara Sea, at the Yenisei Gulf’s mouth in Donovia. It is Donovia’s northernmost port and Asia’s northernmost settlement.
Dudinka. The Dudinka is a port located on the lower course of the Yenisei River, allowing accessibility to seagoing ships. The port is used to ship coal, iron ore, and non-ferrous metals. The port town is served by Dudinka Airport and the Norilsk railway.
Kandalaksha. Located on the eastern shores of Lupcha Bay, Kandalaksha is an Arctic seaport on the White Sea. The port is navigable all year-round, but the use of icebreakers is important during winter. The port at Kandalaksha handles a wide variety of cargo including coal, iron-ore, metal scrap, salt, and vehicles.
Vitino. Located on the western shores of the Kandalaksha Gulf, Vitino is an oil port on the White Sea, which is part of the Arctic Ocean. Operations at the port began in 1995, and the port began to operate year-round since in 2001. The port is primarily used for transporting oil exports produced in Donovian refineries.
Pevek. The port town of Pevek is located on Chaunskaya Bay, in the East Siberian Sea, which is a part of the Arctic Ocean. The port was initially established as part of the Northern Sea Route to export minerals from Donovia. However, as mineral resources waned due to overexploitation, the need for the port also reduced, and the town began to decay.
Tiksi. Tiksi is a Donovian port located on the shores of the Buor-Khaya Gulf. The gulf is part of the Laptev Sea, a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean. It is one of the main ports for accessing the Laptev Sea. There is an airport at Tiksi that connects the isolated settlement with other parts of Donovia. Winter roads also provide access to nearby settlements.
Naryan-Mar. The Naryan-Mar is a port town located on the right bank of the Pechora River, about 110 km from the river's mouth on the Barents Sea. The port is highly significant since it is the only well-equipped commercial port in the region. Thus, the town is popular among tourists and has a thriving tourism industry.
Varandey. This seaport is located near Varandey Bay, on the shores of the Barents Sea. The port was established with the goal of exporting oil produced in the Nenets Autonomous Region. The port admits ice-class vessels throughout the year.
Sabetta. Located on the Yamal Peninsula, on the western shore of the Ob estuary, Sabetta is the site of a port and a liquified natural gas (LNG) plant. The port was established in 2012 by the joint partnership of the Donovian government and Novatek, which is a natural gas producing giant. The aim is to use the port to export LNG by sea.
Novy Port. Located on the mouth of the Ob River, Novy Port is one of the most important ports on the Kara Sea. The port was established with the aim of operating as an interim coal bunkering port for vessels moving along the Northern Sea Route. Currently, it serves as an oil terminal and is undergoing a phase of development. A well-developed fish industry also operates in the area.
Greenland
The transportation system in Greenland has no railways, no inland waterways, and virtually no roads between towns. The majority of transportation is done by air year-round, boats in summer, and dog sleds in winter.
Energy Production
Renewable energy makes up 70% of the public energy supply via the power supply company, Nukissiorfiit. Greenland’s hydroelectric plants include:
| Hydroelectric Plant | Year Operational | Output |
| Buksefjord Power Station at Nuuk | 1992/2008 | 45 MW |
| Tasiilaq | 2005 | 1.2 MW |
| Qorlortorsuaq | 2008 | 7.2 MW |
| Sisimiut | 2009 | 15 MW |
| Ilulissat | 2013 | 22.5 MW |
Through the annual Greenland Finance Act account for the Support of Research and Development of Renewable Energy a number of concrete projects are supported, including the installation of solar panels and wind turbines, installation of remote readers and the dissemination of renewable energy. Since 1993, an average of 1% of gross domestic product (GDP) has been invested annually on the development and establishment of hydropower.
Sea Ports
Greenland has a large number of sea and river ports. The table below lists the sea ports north of the 66th Latitude. Consult National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) Sailing Directions Publication 181 and the World Port Index for detailed port information.
| Name | Location | Anchorage Depth | Remarks |
| Port of Illulissat (Jakobshavn) | 69°13′0.00″N 51°6′0.00″W | 23.2m - over | Cargo pier depth: 6.4m-7.6m
Harbor type: Coastal Natural Max size: up to 154.2 m |
| Port of Oqaatsut (Rodebay) | 69°20′60.00″N 51°1′0.00″W | 3.4m - 4.6m | Harbor type: Coastal Natural
Max size: up to 154.2 m |
| Port of Attu | 67°57′0.00″N 53°43′60.00″W | 23.2m - over | Harbor type: Coastal Natural
Max size: up to 154.2 m |
| Port of Igdlorssuit | 71°13′60.00″N 53°31′0.00″W | 23.2m - over | Harbor type: Coastal Natural |
| Port of Kajalleq Upernavik | 72°9′0.00″N 55°31′60.00″W | 3.4m - 4.6m | Harbor type: Coastal Natural
Repairs: Limited |
| Port of Sisimiut (Holsteinsborg) | 66°55′0.00″N 53°42′0.00″W | 23.2m - over | Cargo pier depth: 9.4m-10m
Harbor type: Coastal Natural Max size: up to 154.2 m Repairs: Moderate |
| Port of Qasigiannguit (Christianshåb) | 68°49′0.00″N 51°10′60.00″W | 23.2m - over | Cargo pier depth: 6.4m-7.6m
Harbor type: Coastal Natural Max size: up to 154.2 m |
| Port of Tasiussaq | 73°22′0.00″N 56°0′0.00″W | 18.6m - 19.8m | Harbor type: Coastal Natural
Max size: up to 154.2 m |
| Port of Saattut | 70°49′0.00″N 51°38′60.00″W | 23.2m - over | Harbor type: Coastal Natural
Max size: up to 154.2 m |
| Port of Qaanaaq (Thule Air Base) | 76°31′60.00″N 68°52′0.00″W | 15.5m - 16m | Cargo pier depth: 6.4m-16m
Harbor type: Coastal Natural Max size: up to 154.2 m Repairs: Limited |
| Port of Aasiaat (Egedesminde) | 68°42′0.00″N 52°52′0.00″W | 23.2m - over | Cargo pier depth: 7.1m-9.1m
Harbor type: Coastal Natural Max size: up to 154.2 m Repairs: Limited |
| Port of Ukkusigssat | 71°4′0.00″N 51°53′60.00″W | 23.2m - over | Harbor type: Open Roadstead
Max size: up to 154.2 m |
| Port of Uummannaq (Ũmánaq) | 70°40′60.00″N 52°8′60.00″W | 23.2m - over | Cargo pier depth: 3.4m-4.6m
Harbor type: Coastal Natural Max size: up to 154.2 m Repairs: Limited |
| Port of Nanok | 75°9′0.00″N 19°46′60.00″W | 23.2m - over | Harbor type: Open Roadstead |
| Port of Qaarsut (Qaersut) | 70°43′60.00″N 52°37′60.00″W | 23.2m - over | Harbor type: Open Roadstead |
| Port of Ikerasak | 70°30′0.00″N 51°19′0.00″W | 23.2m - over | Harbor type: Coastal Natural
Max size: up to 154.2 m |
| Port of Upernavik | 72°46′0.00″N 56°8′60.00″W | 15.5m - 16m | Cargo pier depth: 3.4m-4.6m
Harbor type: Coastal Natural Max size: up to 154.2 m Repairs: Limited |
| Port of Kangersuatsiaq | 72°22′0.00″N 55°34′0.00″W | 23.2m - over | Harbor type: Coastal Natural
Max size: up to 154.2 m |
| Port of Scoresby Sund | 70°28′60.00″N 21°58′0.00″W | 23.2m - over | Harbor type: Coastal Natural |
| Port of North Star Bugt | 76°32′25.01″N 68°50′19.00″W | N/A | N/A |
| Port of Niaqornat | 70°47′60.00″N 53°40′0.00″W | 23.2m - over | Harbor type: Open Roadstead
Max size: up to 154.2 m |
| Port of Qeqertarsuaq (Godhavn) | 69°13′60.00″N 53°31′60.00″W | 12.5m - 13.7m | Cargo pier depth: 6.4m-7.6m
Harbor type: Coastal Natural Max size: up to 154.2 m Repairs: Limited |
Airports and Heliports
Greenland has 14 civil airports and 47 helipads operated by the Greenland Airport Authority. The local government recently issued a solicitation to build three new airports, and Olvana entered competitive bids. This has been challenged by Denmark, but the local government has accepted the bids anyway.
The table below lists the ones north of the 66th Latitude.
An IATA airport code, also known as an IATA location identifier, IATA station code or simply a location identifier, is a three-letter code designating many airports around the world, defined by the International Air Transport Association (IATA).
The ICAO airport code or location indicator is a four-letter code designating aerodromes around the world. These codes are defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization, and published in ICAO Document 7910: Location Indicators are used by air traffic control and airline operations such as flight planning.
| Name | Location | IATA
ICAO |
Remarks |
| Aasiaat Airport | 68°43′19″N 052°47′05″W | JEG
BGAA |
Runway: Asphalt, 799 m
Deicing: No |
| Ilulissat Airport | 69°14′36″N 051°03′26″W | JAV
BGJN |
Runway: Asphalt, 845 m
Deicing: Yes International: Yes |
| Nerlerit Inaat Airport | 70°44′35″N 022°39′02″W | CNP
BGCO |
Runway: Gravel, 1000 m
International: Yes, seasonal |
| Kangerlussuaq Airport | 67°01′01″N 050°41′22″W | SFJ
BGSF |
Runway: Asphalt, 2810 m
International: Yes, seasonal |
| Thule Air Base | 76°31′52″N 068°42′11″W | THU
BGTL |
Runway: Asphalt, 3047 m
International: Yes |
| Qaanaaq Airport | 77°29′19″N 069°23′19″W | NAQ
BGQQ |
Runway: Gravel, 900 m
International: Yes |
| Qaarsut Airport | 70°44′03″N 052°41′46″W | JQA
BGUQ |
Runway: Gravel, 900 m |
| Sisimiut Airport | 66°57′05″N 053°43′46″W | JHS
BGSS |
Runway: Asphalt, 799 m |
| Upernavik Airport | 72°47′25″N 056°07′50″W | JUV
BGUK |
Runway: Asphalt, 799 m |
| Summit Camp | 72°34′46.50″N 38°27′33.07″W | No scheduled flights | Runway: Snow, 4572 m
A permit from the Danish Polar Center under the auspices of the Home Rule Government of Greenland is required to visit the station. |
| Aappilattoq Heliport (Avannaata) | 72°53′13″N 55°35′46″W | None
BGAG |
Helipad: Gravel, 30 x 20 m |
| Akunnaaq Heliport | 68°44′39″N 052°20′25″W | QCU
BGAK |
Helipad: Gravel, 15 m |
| Attu Heliport | 67°56′35″N 053°37′20″W | QGQ
BGAT |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Grass, 30 x 20 m |
| Iginniarfik Heliport | 68°08′45″N 053°10′10″W | None
BGIG |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Gravel, 15 m |
| Ikamiut Heliport | 68°37′56″N 051°50′01″W | QJI
BGIT |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Gravel, 15 m |
| Ikerasaarsuk Heliport | 68°08′27″N 053°26′29″W | QRY
BGIK |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Gravel, 15 m |
| Ikerasak Heliport | 70°29′53″N 051°18′11″W | IKE
BGIA |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Gravel, 15 m |
| Ilimanaq Heliport | 69°04′56″N 051°06′31″W | None
BGIL |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Grass, 30 x 20 m |
| Illorsuit Heliport | 71°14′23″N 053°33′20″W | IOT
BGLL |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Gravel, 15 m |
| Innaarsuit Heliport | 73°12′09″N 056°00′40″W | IUI
BGIN |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Gravel, 15 m |
| Ittoqqortoormiit Heliport | 70°29′18″N 021°58′18″W | OBY
BGSC |
Runway: Asphalt, 13.5 m |
| Kangaatsiaq Heliport | 68°18′46″N 053°27′37″W | None
BGKA |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Asphalt, 30 x 20 m |
| Kangersuatsiaq Heliport | 72°22′52″N 055°32′12″W | KGQ
BGKS |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Grass, 27 x 18 m |
| Kitsissuarsuit Heliport | 68°51′29″N 053°07′26″W | QJE
BGKT |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Gravel, 15 m |
| Kullorsuaq Heliport | 74°34′46″N 057°14′08″W | KHQ
BGKQ |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Gravel, 30 x 20 m |
| Moriusaq Heliport | 76°45′50″N 069°59′50″W | None
BGMO |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Not listed by Naviair |
| Qasigiannguit Heliport | 68°49′02″N 051°10′29″W | JCH
BGCH |
Helipad: Concrete, 20 x 20 m |
| Qeqertaq Heliport | 69°59′58″N 051°18′15″W | PQT
BGQE |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Gravel, 15 m |
| Qeqertarsuaq Heliport | 69°15′04″N 053°32′17″W | JGO
BGGN |
Helipad: Asphalt, 20 x 20 m |
| Saattut Heliport | 70°48′31″N 051°37′36″W | SAE
BGST |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Stones, 15 m |
| Saqqaq Heliport | 70°00′41″N 051°55′56″W | None
BGSQ |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Gravel, 30 x 20 m |
| Savissivik Heliport | 76°01′07″N 065°07′03″W | SVR
BGSV |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Asphalt, 30 x 20 m |
| Siorapaluk Heliport | 77°47′11″N 070°38′18″W | SRK
BGSI |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Gravel, 13.5 m |
| Tasiusaq Heliport (Avannaata) | 73°22′23″N 056°03′37″W | TQA
BGTA |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Asphalt, 27 x 18 m |
| Ukkusissat Heliport | 71°03′19″N 51°53′01″W | JUK
BGUT |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Stones, 15 m |
| Upernavik Kujalleq Heliport | 72°09′10″N 055°31′52″W | None
BGKL |
Heliport is considered a helistop
Helipad: Gravel, 30 x 20 m |
| Uummannaq Heliport | 70°40′49″N 052°09′42″W | UMD
BGUM |
Helipad: Asphalt, 20 x 20 m |
Norway
The quality of the Norwegian transportation infrastructure is quite good, although its high mountains and deeply cut valleys and fjords combined with a severe northern climate make inland transportation difficult during the winter months. Railroads are located mostly in the south while most of the northern regions are accessible only by ship, car, or aircraft.
Norway has 371 seaports and 58 airports.
Norway's energy production, as well as its usage per capita, ranks steadily among the highest in the world. Industry (especially the very energy-intensive aluminum and ferro-alloy industries) consumes 66% of all energy. Norway is one of the largest oil-producing countries in the world, yet hydropower accounts for almost all electricity generation. About 60 percent of all exploitable water resources have already been utilized. Other renewable energy sources in the country are rather limited, and there is a single atomic power plant which has not yet been used for large-scale electricity generation.
Otso
Arctic Data
Arctic based information is mostly contained in each of the Arctic countries. In an effort to improve safety and navigation, Otso has established the Arctic Spatial Data Infrastructure (ArcticSDI). Each Arctic country signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to cooperate with accurate and timely data from their respective national mapping agencies. ArcticSDI is focused on:
1. Open data standards and provision of authoritative data.
2. Undertaking the needs and requirements of stakeholders
3. Working with organizations to make their data available
4. Information Management best practices (geospatial data lifecycle)
Graphic: ArcticSDI
Analysis requires seamless sharing of data across all jurisdictions and organizations. This is a deliberate attempt to remove “stovepiped” information across all affected countries. Future products will include an Arctic reference basemap, a pan-Arctic digital elevation map, maritime data, and a searchable database. Latest products can be accessed at www.arctic-sdi.org.
Otso has the Arctic Space Center at Sodankylä. This is a public-private partnership arrangement which includes the National Satellite Data Center (NSDC) and the Sodankylä Space Campus. The NSDC is a key national function done in cooperation with ESA, NASA, EUMETSAT, and institutes and companies in Italy, Olvana, South Torbia, and the U.S. It provides continuous monitoring of the Arctic region by satellite and is an Earth station for the EU’s Copernicus Sentinel satellites. This provides real-time situational awareness to track sea ice and oil spill monitoring.
"Smart" Roads
Otso is cooperating with Norway in the development, testing, and use of smart roads for autonomous vehicles above the Arctic Circle. As this capability grows, it will be extended to autonomous drones and ships. The developers recognize the need for situational awareness in both environment and location. The current project is called the Aurora Borealis Intelligent Corridor. It is ten kilometers of instrumented road on Highway E8 between Kolari and Tromso. The goal is to produce roads which can be used by autonomous vehicles in all conditions (especially snow and ice), and have those vehicles successfully negotiate international border crossings. Sensors provide data on vibration, weight, pressure, acceleration, oscillation frequency, measurement and monitoring of road structure/condition, and traffic volumes. Vehicle positioning is accomplished using Ultra-wideband (UWB) poles, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), Inertial Measure Unit (IMU) and Real Time Kinematic (RTK), Simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM), and sensor testing with Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR).
For government agencies, the Aurora Borealis Intelligent Corridor provides real time information about road conditions generated by road weather stations. The first tests were completed 2017-2018. More testing and refinement is taking place now.
People’s Republic of Olvana
Olvana, as an observer in the Arctic Council, has declared itself to be a “near Arctic” country. Olvana is now encouraging enterprises to build infrastructure and conduct commercial trial voyages, paving the way for Arctic shipping routes that would form a “Polar Silk Road”. Olvana believes strongly in developing shipping lanes through the Arctic region that become open due to global warming. Along these lines, the country released its first Arctic policy white paper last January. A majority of Olvana’s interests in the region lie in its major stake in Donovia’s Yamal liquefied natural gas (LNG) project, which is expected to supply China with four million tons of LNG a year. Shipping through the Northern Sea Route would shave almost 20 days off the regular time using the traditional route through the Suez Canal. The white paper said Olvana also targets development of oil, gas, mineral resources and other non-fossil energies, fishing and tourism in the region.
United States of America (U.S.)
Arctic infrastructure in the U.S. exists only in the state of Alaska.
Sea Ports
There are six deep draft ports in Alaska (Anchorage, Seward, Valdez, Kodiak, Unalaska, and Homer), but none in the Arctic. Unalaska is the last deepwater port where large ships heading to the Arctic can refuel in the western United States, and the first when returning. In the Arctic region, St. Paul; Island has an existing harbor, Nome has a medium-draft port, Kotzebue has a shallow-draft port complex, and Prudhoe Bay has an existing dock system.
Airports and Heliports
There are numerous local paved and unimproved runways for passenger and freight transport north of Latitude 66°33′47.1″.
| Commercial Service – Primary Airports | |||
| Name | Location | IATA
ICAO |
Remarks |
| Wiley Post-Will Rogers Memorial Airport | Barrow.
71°17′08″N 156°45′58″W |
BRW
PABR |
Asphalt. 2,164m
Deicing: Yes International: Yes |
| Deadhorse Airport
Prudhoe Airport |
70°11′41″N 148°27′55″W | SCC
PASC |
Asphalt. 1,981m
Deicing: Yes International: No |
| Ralph Wien Memorial Airport | Kotzebue.
66°53′05″N 162°35′55″W |
OTZ
PAOT |
Asphalt. 1,798m
Gravel. 1,181m International: No |
| Commercial Service – Nonprimary Airports | |||
| Anaktuvuk Pass Airport | 68°08′01″N 151°44′36″W | AKP
PAKP |
Gravel. 1,463m
International: No |
| Coldfoot Airport | 67°15′08″N 150°12′14″W | CXF
PACX |
Gravel. 975m
International: No |
| Fort Yukon Airport | 66°34′21″N 145°14′47″W | FYU
PFYU |
Gravel. 1,524m
International: No |
| Barter Island LRRS Airport | 70°08′02″N 143°34′55″W | BTI
PABA |
Gravel. 1,372m
International: No |
| Bob Baker Memorial Airport | Kiana
66°58′33″N 160°26′12″W |
IAN
PAIK |
Gravel. 1,036m
International: No |
| Kivalina Airport | 67°44′10″N 164°33′49″W | KVL
PAVL |
Gravel. 914m
International: No |
| Noatak Airport | 67°33′40″N 162°58′49″W | WTK
PAWN |
Gravel. 1,219m
International: No |
| Robert (Bob) Curtis Memorial Airport | Noorvik
66°49′03″N 161°01′20″W |
ORV
PFNO |
Gravel. 1,219m
International: No |
| Point Hope Airport | 68°20′56″N 166°47′58″W | PHO
PAPO |
Asphalt. 1,219m
International: No |
| Selawik Airport | 66°36′00″N 159°59′09″W | WLK
PASK |
Gravel. 915m
Gravel. 810m International: No |
| General Aviation Airports | |||
| Allakaket Airport | 66°33′07″N 152°37′20″W | AET
PFAL |
Gravel. 1,219m
International: No |
| Ambler Airport | 67°06′23.9″N 157°51′25.6″W | ABL
PAFM |
Gravel. 1,219m
Gravel. 735m International: No |
| Arctic Village Airport | 68°06′53″N 145°34′46″W | ARC
PARC |
Gravel. 1,219m
International: No |
| Atqasuk Edward Burnell Sr. Memorial Airport | Atqasuk
70°28′02″N 157°26′08″W |
ATK
PATQ |
Gravel. 1,332m
International: No |
| Bettles Airport | 66°54′50″N 151°31′45″W | BTT
PABT |
Turf/Gravel. 1,582m
Two seaplane landing areas International: No |
| Chandalar Lake Airport | 67°30′16″N 148°28′59″W | WCR
PALR |
Gravel/Dirt. 914m
International: No |
| Kobuk Airport | 66°54′44″N 156°53′50″W | OBU
PAOB |
Gravel. 1,225m
International: No |
| Nuiqsut Airport | 70°12′36″N 151°00′20″W | NUI
PAQT |
Gravel. 1,324m
International: No |
| Point Lay LRRS Airport | 69°43′56″N 163°00′40″W | PIZ
PPIZ |
Gravel. 1,073m
International: No |
| Prospect Creek Airport | 66°48′51″N 150°38′37″W | PPC
PAPR |
Gravel. 1,514m
International: No |
| Shungnak Airport | 66°53′17″N 157°09′45″W | SHG
PAGH |
Gravel. 1,219m
International: No |
| Umiat Airport | 69°22′16″N 152°08′06″W | UMT
PAUM |
Gravel. 1,702m
International: No |
| Venetie Airport | 67°00′31″N 146°21′59″W | VEE
PAVE |
Gravel. 1,219m
International: No |
| Other Government/Military Airports | |||
| Cape Lisburne LRRS Airport | 68°52′30″N 166°06′40″W | LUR
PALU |
Gravel. 1,463m
International: No Not for public use |
| Point Lonely Short Range Radar Site | 70°54′39″N 153°14′32″W | LNI
PALN |
Gravel. 1,524m
International: No Not for public use |
| Wainwright Air Station | 70°36′48″N 159°51′37″W | None
PAWT |
Gravel. 914m
International: No |
| Private Airports | |||
| Alpine Airstrip | 70°20′39″N 150°56′41″W | None
PALP |
Gravel. 1,524m
International: No Owned by ConocoPhilips Alaska |
| Ugnu–Kuparuk Airport | 70°19′51″N 149°35′51″W | UUK
PAKU |
Gravel. 1,997m
International: No Owned by ConocoPhilips Alaska |