Chapter 12: Engineer Support

The OPFOR realizes that engineer support is vital for the successful execution of combat. Due to the fluid nature of modern combat, effective engineer support is essential for ground forces to employ or preserve combat power, as the conditions dictate. Engineer support can give combat forces the ability to maneuver quickly to exploit windows of opportunity. It can help change the nature of the conflict to something for which the enemy is not prepared.

Adaptive Engineer Support

OPFOR engineers must be flexible enough to support two basic types of combat. The first is the fight against a less powerful neighbor, in which the OPFOR expects to dominate what is generally a traditional, conventional fight. The second is the fight against a more powerful force, a fight in which the OPFOR expects to be overmatched in at least some conventional capabilities. When the enemy is the dominant force in the region, this will likely compel the OPFOR to fight a defensive fight. In order to defeat this more powerful enemy, the OPFOR employs innovative, adaptive tactics to mitigate the enemy’s advantages. An example of this innovativeness is the manner in which the OPFOR attempts to change the nature of the conflict. To accomplish this, the OPFOR attempts to place the enemy on the defense rather than offense, wherever possible. One means of accomplishing this is the constant and ubiquitous use of mine warfare. There is no sanctuary for the enemy—mines are everywhere. Two examples of this are—

Emplacement of “toe-popper” mines on enemy foot traffic routes to produce wounds, not kills. This stresses the medical evacuation system and creates tentativeness among enemy soldiers. This could be tied in with attacks on the enemy’s medical evacuation system.
Maximum use of antihelicopter mines against possible attack helicopter firing positions or landing zones.

Other examples of adaptive methods engineers are likely to employ against a more powerful enemy (in addition to methods used in a more conventional battle) are interspersed throughout this chapter.

Missions and Tasks

The primary engineer missions performed in combat are reconnaissance, mobility, countermobility, and survivability. (See sections below on each of these missions.) Some examples of specific engineer tasks required to support those missions are to⎯

Conduct engineer reconnaissance of the enemy and the terrain.
Prepare and maintain routes of movement and supply.
Clear passages through obstacles and areas of destruction.
Perform demolition work.
Establish and maintain water obstacle crossings.
Establish and improve engineer obstacles.
Prepare fortifications.
Protect personnel and equipment from the effects of conventional direct and indirect fires, precision munitions, and chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) strikes.
Carry out engineer measures to eliminate the aftereffects of CBRN weapons.
Support information warfare (INFOWAR) and carry out engineer camouflage, concealment, cover, and deception (C3D) measures.
Extract and purify water and establish water supply points.

See tables 12-1, 12-2, and 12-3 on pages 12-3 and 12-7 for how these tasks support the preparation and conduct of offense, defense, and tactical movement, respectively.

The OPFOR plans the complete integration of civilian and military engineer resources. For example, maneuver commanders may use civilian earthmoving, road-building, and construction equipment and personnel in support zones. This allows constituent combat engineer equipment and personnel to accompany maneuver forces in battle. Civilian workers or maneuver units can perform many basic combat engineer tasks, with engineers providing guidance and technical expertise.

Engineer tasks are a shared responsibility throughout the OPFOR. For instance, combat troops, as well as engineers, perform mine warfare tasks such as minelaying, minefield recording, and mine removal or breaching. Engineer and combat arms personnel also perform survivability tasks such as constructing fortifications, clearing fields of fire, and camouflage. The same is true for water obstacle crossings, where some units and equipment can ford, swim, or snorkel across with little or no engineer support. Although the highest level of engineer training and the greatest technical capabilities exist in the engineer troops, all military personnel and units train in fundamental engineer tasks.

The OPFOR’s intent is to make the entire force as flexible and capable as possible while minimizing dependence on limited engineer support. This allows maneuver forces to autonomously execute rudimentary or basic engineer tasks. It also frees the engineer troops to⎯

Perform engineer-specific or critical tasks supporting the maneuver commander’s intent.
Exploit and expand successful engineer effort begun by the combat troops.
Support units that have little or no engineer capability.

Offense

During preparation for the offense, the engineers focus on four major activities:

Preparing routes for the advance and employment of combat forces.
Providing survivability support to units in assembly areas.
Establishing passages in obstacles and minefields.
Establishing and maintaining crossings over water obstacles.

Table 12-1 identifies these, along with other specific engineer tasks required to support the actual conduct of offensive actions.

During the offense, the engineers’ primary mission is to support the attack and assist in maintaining a high tempo of combat. Once the attack has started, engineer troops continue to perform tasks contributing to high rates of advance. Occasionally, they create obstacles to protect flanks, disrupt counterattacks, and block enemy reinforcements. Ongoing engineer reconnaissance is performed independently or in conjunction with other reconnaissance elements.

The OPFOR views commitment of exploitation forces or reserves as one of the most critical and vulnerable periods of combat. Engineer troops play a vital part in ensuring its success. They ensure the force’s timely arrival on the line of commitment and provide support for its deployment and protection against flank attacks.

Table 12-1. Engineer support for preparation and conduct of the offense
Tactical Missions Requiring Engineer Support	Engineer Technical Tasks
Movement forward, deployment, and transition to the offense. Preparation of assembly areas. Crossing water obstacles. Supporting disruption and battle zones. Repelling counterattacks. Penetration of enemy defenses. Conduct of the battle. Commitment of exploitation force or reserve. Reinforcing captured positions.	Conduct engineer reconnaissance of enemy and terrain. Prepare fortifications in assembly areas. Clear passages in obstacles and perform demolition work. Establish and maintain water obstacle-crossing sites. Establish obstacles. Extract and purify water and establish water supply points. Carry out engineer C3D measures. Prepare and maintain movement routes. Eliminate aftereffects of CBRN strikes.

Defense

When the enemy is the dominant force in the region, the OPFOR generally fights a defensive fight. In order to defeat a more powerful force, the OPFOR employs innovative engineer methods to mitigate the enemy’s advantages, in addition to those employed in the more conventional battle.

Engineer support for the defense focuses on reconnaissance, countermobility support, and survivability support. It places emphasis on fortifying battle positions and assembly areas, performing engineer C3D measures, and adapting the terrain for defense. The defense is also conducive to the extensive use of various obstacles to interfere with the enemy’s advance.

The general aims of engineer support the defense include⎯

Controlling access and tempo by delaying, disaggregating, and canalizing enemy forces.
Establishing conditions necessary for organizing the defense.
Ensuring the integration of engineer support to INFOWAR and preparing deception positions. Table 12-2 identifies specific engineer tasks required to support defensive actions.

Table 12-2. Engineer support for preparation and conduct of the defense
Tactical Missions Requiring Engineer Support	Engineer Technical Tasks
Repelling enemy attacks in front of the battle line. Preparation of defensive areas. Troop movement. Battle to hold positions. Repelling enemy penetrations of defense. Overcoming covering force zone. Counterattack by exploitation forces or reserve. Reinforcing lines taken in counterattack. Transition to the offense.	Conduct engineer reconnaissance of enemy and terrain. Prepare fortifications in battle positions and assembly areas. Clear passages in obstacles and perform demolition work. Establish and maintain water obstacle-crossing sites. Establish and improve obstacles. Extract and purify water and establish water supply points. Carry out engineer C3D measures. Prepare and maintain movement routes (for maneuver and supplies) Protect personnel and equipment from the effects of conventional direct and indirect fires, precision munitions, and CBRN strikes. Eliminate aftereffects of CBRN strikes.

The type and scale of engineer support depends on the tactical situation, enemy forces, and the conditions under which the OPFOR assumes the defense. If the OPFOR does so during the course of the offense, support may have to begin with the protection of threatened axes by obstacle detachments (ODs) and antitank reserves (ATRs) and the improving of routes needed for regrouping. If the OPFOR assumes a defense when not in contact with the enemy, support can begin with the creation of defensive works and the improvement of routes necessary for the OPFOR units to deploy. In both cases, engineer work supports development of the battle position by enhancing the effectiveness of OPFOR weapons and protecting personnel and equipment from the effects of conventional fire and weapons of mass destruction.

In the disruption and battle zones, the goals of engineer support are to hold up the enemy advance. In battle zones, engineer support facilitates organized withdrawal, maneuver, or counterattack by friendly forces. Defensive planning measures ensure extensive use of obstacles, integrated with preplanned direct and indirect fires, to affect the enemy’s advance and facilitate his destruction.

Command and Control

Engineer units allocated to a tactical group in constituent or dedicated relationships may be retained directly under the command of the tactical group commander. However, rather than keeping all organic and allocated engineer assets under his direct command and control (C2), the tactical group commander may suballocate some of his constituent or dedicated engineer units to his subordinate units. Additionally, tactical group commanders control⎯but do not command⎯other engineer assets that are allocated to them in a supporting relationship.

In the case of a division tactical group (DTG), the commander can allocate engineer units to his integrated fires command (IFC) and/or integrated support command (ISC). Some engineer units may be grouped under the integrated support groups (ISGs) that perform combat support tasks for the IFC or the DTG.

Staff Responsibility

In maneuver divisions, brigades, and tactical groups, engineer officers are permanent members of functional staff subsections under the chief of force protection and the chief of infrastructure management. Additionally, an engineer liaison team from each subordinate or supporting engineer unit supports the staff. These teams provide the operations officer with detailed expertise on engineer functions and provide a direct communications conduit to subordinate and supporting units executing such functions. Based on the advice of the liaison teams and coordination with the engineer units through the respective liaison teams, the functional staff chiefs advise the operations officer and/or the commander on engineer employment within their functional areas. The senior engineer team leader is designated as the chief of engineer liaison teams (CELT) and is the primary staff advisor to both the operations officer and the maneuver commander. In those units without liaison teams, the senior engineer serves as the CELT.

Other liaison teams may fall under the chief of current operations, to advise and assist in mobility and countermobility functions. The engineer liaison teams also coordinate, as necessary, with other staff elements, including the chief of INFOWAR. Liaison team leaders speak for the commanders of their respective units.

The maneuver commander specifies the tactical combat action(s) of his subordinate and supporting units, their start time and duration, and the area for these actions to take place. With this information, the engineer officers on his staff determine the required engineer missions to support the maneuver commander’s plan. They prioritize engineer efforts to execute the technical tasks necessary to accomplish the overall mission. They can then determine the appropriate mix of troops, equipment, and materials necessary to perform the tasks under current conditions. They advise the commander and his staff on the best employment of available engineer assets to support the maneuver commander’s mission, intent, and objectives.

The engineer liaison teams keep their respective engineer unit commanders informed of requirements for engineer support and pass on any guidance from the maneuver unit commander and staff on possible task-organizing. Then they monitor the execution of the directed missions. They provide input to the maneuver commander’s combat orders and battle plans, the reconnaissance plan, the obstacle plan, and deception plans. They help organize the crossing of water obstacles and other barriers, and the preparation and maintenance of movement routes. They coordinate with the division, brigade, or tactical group chief of logistics regarding the preparation, improvement, and maintenance of supply and evacuation routes.

The main steps that the liaison teams perform in support of combat actions are⎯

Helping the engineer unit commander decide the appropriate organization of engineer support and reporting it to the maneuver commander.
Participating in the reconnaissance conducted by the maneuver commander.
Monitoring the completion of tasks by engineer units during the preparation for, and conduct of, combat.
Reporting the status of engineer support to the maneuver commander.

Task-Organizing

There are no doctrinal constraints on task-organizing for mission success. The ability to allocate assets downward and to task-organize is restrained only by the availability of assets and the nature of the mission. If the necessary assets and/or capabilities are not available within the organization, the OPFOR commander will request the appropriate assets through his higher headquarters.

Engineer assets generally are constituent at no lower than brigade level. However, the OPFOR prefers to task-organize for mission success at even lower levels, when the assets are available. This may dictate that, instead of maintaining engineer units in their original composition, the commander may choose to break them down and combine them into smaller multirole engineer support elements. These engineer elements range in size from companies down to multirole platoons and engineer squads.

Engineer assets deploy throughout the battlefield and perform numerous distinct missions simultaneously during the course of the battle. In this way, route-clearing assets perform one function, while others perform demolitions, lay mines, construct obstacles, prepare battle positions, or set up water purification sites. Occasionally, the combined arms commander can also allocate to these groupings additional non-engineer assets, such as artillery, tank, or infantry troops. He can also augment maneuver elements with the engineer groups.

The following is a list of typical task-oriented engineer groupings:

Obstacle detachment (OD, see Countermobility).
Movement support detachment (MSD, see Mobility).
Engineer reconnaissance patrol (ERP, see Engineer Reconnaissance).

Support to Information Warfare

The complete integration of engineer support of INFOWAR is critical at the tactical level, especially when fighting a powerful enemy. Deception is one of the basic elements of INFOWAR. Engineer support of the deception plan is vital for the deception to succeed. (See the subsection on C3D under Survivability.) Engineers’ largest role in an integrated deception plan is that of constructing physical decoys (simulations in deception positions), enabling the enemy to see what he expects to see.

However, engineer support to INFOWAR is not limited to C3D measures. For example, engineers may support the INFOWAR campaign with psychological warfare activities to lower morale and instill a sense of tentativeness among enemy soldiers, and to undermine confidence of “enemy-friendly” populations. This can be achieved simply by the ubiquitous use of booby traps and mines. See chapter 7 for additional information on INFOWAR at the tactical level.

Engineer Reconnaissance

Engineers conduct reconnaissance independently, or combined with chemical and reconnaissance elements. If the maneuver unit commander needs unique, specific engineer data for planning and preparation, he may order or request the use of engineer assets to form engineer reconnaissance patrols (ERPs), observation posts (OPs), and photographic reconnaissance posts. Engineer reconnaissance elements usually gather the following information:

Enemy engineer preparation of battle positions and individual fighting positions.
Location, type, and composition of enemy obstacles.
Conditions of roads, bridges, water obstacle-crossing sites, and routes.
Presence of local building materials and other materials available for engineer tasks.
Protective and camouflaging properties of the terrain.
Enemy obstacles and demolitions created both during the preparation for the attack and during the attack.
Movement routes and trafficability of off-road terrain for the attacking combat units.
Locations where the enemy established obstacles during his withdrawal.
Water obstacles on the main axis of advance.
Local water supplies.

Water obstacles place additional requirements on engineer reconnaissance missions. See Reconnaissance under Water Obstacle Crossing, below, for a listing of the types of information required and who is likely to obtain it.

Reconnaissance Patrols

To provide engineer expertise, the OPFOR can allocate engineer specialists to accompany a tactical reconnaissance patrol dispatched by a division, brigade, tactical group, or even a battalion-size detachment (BDET). Additionally, reconnaissance elements of maneuver units can provide limited engineer-related information, although with less technical precision. However, under most conditions, the missions of all these reconnaissance elements preclude them from concentrating solely on engineer requirements. Therefore, the maneuver commander may order or request the engineer unit to form its own engineer reconnaissance elements.

A brigade or brigade tactical group (BTG)—or in some cases, a BDET—can include two or three engineer reconnaissance personnel in a regular reconnaissance patrol or security element. When engineer personnel augment other patrols in this manner, there is not likely to be a separate ERP.

Engineer Reconnaissance Patrols

When the engineer mission is expected to be a complicated one, however, it is better to form one or two ERPs. The use of two patrols allows the conduct of engineer reconnaissance by the leapfrog method. Ideally, the ERP(s) would begin their mission 1 to 2 hours before the main body of the brigade, BTG, or BDET starts to move. They assess the routes chosen by the staff, checking the validity of plans made from a map and reporting on⎯

Obstacles and the effort required to overcome them.
Conditions of crossing sites on water obstacles.
The general nature of the terrain.

Engineer advice is an important element in the selection of routes and crossing points.

ERPs vary in strength from a squad to a platoon. A divisional brigade or BTG is more likely to form a squad-size patrol from its engineer company. An ERP can also include one or two CBRN reconnaissance specialists.

Route Reconnaissance

When engineers reconnoiter routes, one of their goals is to identify anything that could impede mobility. Taking into consideration any guidance from supported commanders and their staffs, the engineer unit commander can increase the size of his reconnaissance element and divide it into smaller teams in order to cover several points simultaneously. This allows him to assess a large number of features in the shortest amount of time.

When moving in areas where contact with enemy forces is unlikely, the engineer or maneuver commander can send an ERP ahead to obtain the required data. When anticipating enemy contact, engineer reconnaissance and data collection may be limited to reports from troop reconnaissance elements reporting on the engineer aspects observed along the route.

When reconnoitering routes, engineers attempt to⎯

Verify the condition of the route.
Determine aspects of off-road terrain.
Identify all obstacles and locate bypasses or recommended breach sites.
Inspect bridges and dams.
Identify suitable halt and assembly areas.

They report information on these topics to the commanders of the engineer and/or maneuver units that sent them out.

When the OPFOR route of advance encompasses potential water obstacles, ERPs try to find spots to set up ferry and bridge crossings, plus assembly or preparation areas. If bridges exist, engineers gather information on—

The support structure.
Load capacity.
Necessary repairs.
The presence of mines and demolitions on the approaches and on the bridge itself.

Mobility

When the OPFOR is the dominate force in the region, fighting a less powerful enemy, the OPFOR generally has freedom to maneuver wherever it wants whenever it wants. If the enemy hinders its movement, the OPFOR has alternatives because it dominates the region. However, when fighting a more powerful opponent, it is especially critical that the OPFOR maintain the ability to move unimpeded. This ability allows the OPFOR to control the access and tempo of enemy forces. As long as the OPFOR has complete access to the battlefield, it will allow no sanctuary to the enemy and determine the nature of the conflict. Engineer support can create opportunities for infiltration of small forces into unexpected locations, to inflict damage or to support INFOWAR.

Engineers are responsible for accomplishing tasks permitting the unimpeded movement of forces along the movement route, plus activities at assembly and halt areas. They also support the crossing of water obstacles. Table 12-3 lists the specific engineer technical tasks that provide the required support for tactical missions prior to and during tactical movement.

Table 12-3. Engineer support for preparation and conduct of tactical movement
Tactical Missions Requiring Engineer Support	Engineer Technical Tasks
Preparation of assembly and halt areas. Tactical movement. Crossing water obstacles.	Conduct engineer reconnaissance of enemy and terrain. Clear passages in obstacles and perform demolition work. Establish and maintain water obstacle-crossing sites. Extract and purify water and establish water supply points. Carry out engineer C3D measures. Prepare and maintain movement routes. Prepare fortifications at assembly and halt areas. Eliminate aftereffects of CBRN attacks.

Movement Routes

A movement route can follow any line and may include existing roads, cross-country roads, and off-road areas. After careful consideration of reconnaissance data and consultation with engineer officers on his staff, the commander specifies the particular movement route(s) his force will use. The engineer units and their liaison teams in the maneuver unit’s staff are then responsible for planning and coordinating engineer support to prepare and maintain the specified movement routes. They provide input to the engineer support plan for the commander, who then issues orders, missions, and requirements to the constituent and dedicated engineer unit commanders for execution.

Movement Support Detachment

The MSD is a task-oriented, temporary grouping of engineer assets to support route clearance and movement of the force in preparation for, and during tactical movement. The composition of an MSD is not fixed and varies depending upon the⎯

Condition of the terrain.
Character of enemy actions.
Amount of work necessary.
Assigned rate of movement for the columns.
Availability of engineer troops and equipment.

Since its various technical tasks involve different types of equipment, the MSD frequently task- organizes into smaller elements to allow concurrent actions along the movement route. A typical MSD consists of a reconnaissance and obstacle-clearing element, plus one or two road and bridge construction and repair elements.

Reconnaissance and Obstacle-Clearing Element

Responsibilities of the reconnaissance and obstacle-clearing element include⎯

Marking the movement route.
Making immediate assessments of the terrain and obstacles.
Identifying bypasses.
Creating and marking passages through obstacles.
Determining the character of destruction along the route.
Locating building materials.

Augmenting assets from the division engineer battalion can use explosive charges or mechanical equipment to overcome rubble, rock barriers, and dragon’s teeth (concrete pillars or iron posts). Engineers can breach wire obstacles after examining them for booby traps and electrification. Tree barriers may require the use of dozer blades or explosives.

The reconnaissance and obstacle-clearing element typically includes⎯

An engineer unit base.
Hand-held or vehicle-mounted mine-detection equipment.
Explosives.
Mineclearing vehicles such a tank with roller and plows.
Route- or obstacle-clearing vehicles.

Road and Bridge Construction and Repair Element

The road and bridge construction and repair element usually has—

One or more engineer squads.
Tank- or truck-launched bridges.
Route-clearing vehicles.
Cranes and road graders.

The equipment varies depending on mission requirements and what was passed down from higher levels of command.

Responsibilities of the road and bridge construction and repair element include⎯

Mineclearing and obstacle clearing along the route.
Reinforcement of bridges and repairs to roads.
Construction of bypasses.
Building and reinforcing bridges.
Establishing fords and bypasses.
Strengthening the route in swampy sections.
Removing rubble.
Repairing damage.

This element can also complete the route reconnaissance and marking of the route begun by the reconnaissance and obstacle-clearing element.

MSD Position During Tactical Movement

While moving, the MSD travels in advance of the main body, preparing the route so the main body can continue its advance unimpeded. Elements of the MSD are often performing tasks in proximity to elements of the security detachment. The location of the MSD in relation to the security detachment depends upon the possibility of enemy contact. When enemy contact is likely, the MSD may follow the security detachment. If enemy contact is unlikely, the MSD may be well ahead of the security detachment.

Obstacle Breaching

The OPFOR is prepared to overcome obstacles during all phases of combat. In the offense, the OPFOR expects to cross obstacles on movement routes and throughout the enemy defense. Creating passages for the advance of the force in the face of enemy resistance is a combined arms task.

Explosive Obstacle Breaching

Explosive devices are the most significant obstacles the OPFOR expects to encounter. The OPFOR expects the enemy to use explosive obstacles and other obstructions for defensive purposes to impede the OPFOR’s advance. In order for the OPFOR to conduct (or continue) an attack, maneuver units must breach these obstacles under direct and/or indirect fire. Units engaged in breaching these obstacles are extremely vulnerable to all enemy fires. Whenever possible, the OPFOR attempts breach a minefield from tactical movement, with minimum delay, and press the attack without first halting to consolidate on the far side of the obstacle.

The OPFOR may be required to breach enemy minefields when fighting a more powerful force. Although it may breach them in the more conventional manner described here, the OPFOR can also devise innovative methods to cross minefields. One such method might be to manually clear a path through the minefield through covert action. Several lanes could be cleared in this fashion. Then, at a time of the OPFOR’s own choosing, dismounted troops could infiltrate through the minefield and rendezvous at a designated location on the other side, undetected by the enemy. See figure 12-1 on page 12-10.

Organizing Forces and Elements

There are three fundamental methods by which the OPFOR organizes for breach operations. First, and most preferable, is to make no special alterations to task organization for breach operations. A detachment is expected to breach as part of its situational breach battle drill (see chapter 5). Therefore, its higher commander will make every attempt to include in its task organization the means necessary to breach any anticipated obstacles without the need to deviate from the basic structure of action, support, and security elements or the need for outside assistance. The action element temporarily becomes a breaching element in order to reduce the obstacle such that it can accomplish its mission (as the action element).

Should any anticipated obstacles require significant allocation of specialist assets, the detachment commander may form a clearing element. A clearing element is a type of specialist element that penetrates obstacles permitting the action element to accomplish the detachment’s mission.

Complex or extensive obstacles may require the formation of an MSD. MSDs are typically formed by tactical groups to support the movement of multiple detachments through a given zone of obstacles or to support their movement across a major water obstacle. (For more detail on MSDs, see that subsection above.)

Planning

Planning and preparation for the breaching of an explosive obstacle includes—

Reconnaissance of the obstacle, including attempts to locate a bypass, and marking optimal breach locations.
Infiltration of stealth breach teams, if possible.

Breaching Methods

The OPFOR has three basic means to breach a minefield: explosive, mechanical, and manual:

Explosive means such as line charges, bangalore torpedoes, and volumetric explosives all work by detonating mines through explosive pressures.
Mechanical mineclearing plows or plow and roller combinations mounted on combat vehicles provide the main countermine capability to conventional forces. These systems detonate mines by striking them in advance of coming into contact with a vehicle or by physically moving the mines out of a defined path.
Manual breaching requires personnel to physically displace or defuse explosive devices.

Mechanized Breaching

Mechanized and tank units make use of all three breaching methods to rapidly create lanes through obstacles with minimal delay. All OPFOR mechanized and tank units are trained, equipped, and expected to breach explosive obstacles without resorting to requests for help to higher levels of command (see figure 12-2).

Despite the advantages of mechanical means attached or integral to combat and combat engineer vehicles, it is still preferred that explosive breach means, whether mechanized or employed by infantry or engineer forces, be the primary method for executing a mechanized breach. This is because mechanical means place the combat vehicles at more risk. Mechanized explosive means are also the least vulnerable to booby traps placed in and around obstacles to make their breaching more difficult.

If at all possible, non-mechanized and/or affiliated irregular forces will breach anticipated obstacles in advance of a mechanized force. Such forces typically employ C3D to prevent detection while creating the breach.

Nonexplosive Obstacle Breaching

The breaching of nonexplosive obstacles is essentially the same as breaching explosive ones with these salient differences:

Mechanical and manual breach methods will typically take precedence.
Significant nonexplosive obstacles (large antitank [AT] ditches, rivers, or rubble from a collapsed multi-story building) will not be rapidly breachable by manual means, if at all.

During the offense, an MSD also creates lanes through nonexplosive obstacles. In this case, the MSD may require additional engineer augmentation beyond just countermine equipment. For example, it may employ obstacle-clearing vehicles to knock down berms. It may also use truck-launched bridges to cross AT ditches.

Water Obstacle Crossing

The enemy is expected to use rivers and other water obstacles for defensive purposes. In order to conduct (or continue) an attack, OPFOR maneuver units must often cross water obstacles whose opposite banks may or may not be occupied by the enemy. Crossing is a generic term identifying the site of a water obstacle crossing or the act of crossing. Crossing involves using bridges, ferries, fords, or amphibious combat equipment. The OPFOR identifies two methods of overcoming water obstacles:

Opposed crossing (when expecting enemy contact).
Unopposed crossing (when not expecting enemy contact).

Rarely would the OPFOR attempt the classic opposed water crossing (described below under Opposed Crossing) when fighting an opponent more capable than itself. However, there may be times when the OPFOR must cross rivers in territory occupied by the enemy. Even then, it would typically only attempt the opposed crossing if convinced of success and if the enemy did not believe the OPFOR would attempt the crossing. This crossing would be integrated into the overall battle plan and the INFOWAR plan.

More likely, however, when opposing a stronger force, the OPFOR would attempt to cross the river covertly at night or during inclement weather. This would allow the OPFOR to infiltrate units—a few vehicles at a time⎯across the river. The units would regroup at a designated area and continue operations in enemy territory. Engineer support for this may only be engineer reconnaissance of the river and routes. Engineers could also build (undetected) an underwater bridge out of sandbags, or make rafts rigged to transport vehicles.

Note. Aside from water obstacles, crossings can involve other kinds of gaps, such as ravines. These other kinds of gap crossing can employ some of the same engineer assets and methods used to overcome water obstacles.

The OPFOR also expects to make most crossings without the advantage of an existing bridge or convenient fording site. Therefore, engineers must be prepared to provide specialized bridging and amphibious transport (tracked amphibians and ferries) to facilitate a timely crossing.