Chapter 3: Operational Variables

This page is a section of TC 7-101 Exercise Design.

As discussed in chapter 2, the operational variables provide key design considerations for the exercise planner. Together, these variables comprise all the conditions, circumstances, and influences that affect any military operation or any training exercise. They provide a comprehensive view of an operational environment (OE), real or simulated, that realistically challenges the training unit, its leaders, and Soldiers in the execution of their missions and tasks. This chapter describes the variables, subvariables, and linkages that can be used to develop comprehensive OE conditions for training exercises.

Operational Environment

An OE is the complete set of conditions, circumstances, and influences that affect the decisions of the unit commander and the deployment and employment of military forces, as well as other instruments of national power. It encompasses all the variables that affect where Soldiers will train or fight.

The OE represented in a training event must be appropriate for the training objectives. What constitutes a realistic and relevant OE for a particular training event depends on how much the unit knows about where it can expect to be deployed. On the one hand, the unit may know the specific area of operations (AO) where it will deploy or be able to anticipate such a specific deployment. In that case, the goal should be to create training conditions that replicate as closely as possible the actual conditions of the specific OE associated with that AO. On the other hand, the unit may need to train to accomplish its core capabilities in any of a number of possible OEs. In that case, it is appropriate to design an OE that represents a composite of the types of conditions that might exist in a number of actual OEs in which the unit might find itself involved in full spectrum operations.

In either case, the design and structure of the OE for any training event consists of three main components: actual data, projected data, and intelligent compromise. All that differs is the proportion of each. The term for this combination of actual data, intelligent compromise, and projected information that creates the conditions for any training event is the Contemporary Operational Environment (COE). The COE is the collective set of conditions, derived from a composite of actual worldwide conditions, that pose realistic challenges for training, leader development, and capabilities development for Army forces and their joint, intergovernmental, interagency and multinational partners. The COE is a collective term for the relevant aspects of contemporary OEs that exist or could exist today or in the, near- and mid- term future (next 10 years). It is a composite of all the operational variables and actors that create the conditions, circumstances, and influence that can affect military operations—and therefore serve as the conditions necessary for training and leader development. Most importantly, it is not a totally artificial construct created for training; rather, it is a representative composite based on the characteristics of one or more actual OEs in this contemporary timeframe.

Variables, Subvariables, AND Settings

The foundation of the exercise planner’s development of the appropriate OE for a training exercise is the eight operational variables that reside in all OEs and have the greatest impact on military forces. The strength of these variables is that they are flexible and scalable, capable of replicating any OE that U.S. forces might encounter along the full spectrum of conflict. These variables are Political, Military, Economic, Social, Information, Infrastructure, Physical Environment, and Time (PMESII-PT). The variables relate to specific situations as well as threat capabilities. They are relevant to every echelon of command and every military mission. While individual variables do not dominate every environment, they are all present and require careful consideration. Ignoring one or more of these variables can negatively impact military missions and the realism of training conditions in an exercise.

The taxonomy of categorizing the components of any OE begins with the eight PMESII-PT. The next level down from the variables is the associated subvariables, which show either a menu or a range of choices called subvariable settings. In a few cases, a subvariable may break down into another level of specificity, called sub-subvariables, which have their own choices of settings. Each variable, associated subvariables and sub-subvariables, and their settings have specific definitions to assist the planner in building the desired OE.

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Note. The listed subvariables and associated settings are not necessarily all inclusive. As events, technology, and time change, existing subvariables may need to be modified or new ones added. Even in conducting an operational environment assessment (OEA) for an actual OE, additional subvariables may be necessary. The intent in this TC is to provide a basic guideline of areas that are important and may need to be considered in designing a training exercise.

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The remaining portion of this chapter will provide a detailed breakdown of each operational variable and their associated components in the order of the memory aid PMESII-PT. The entry for each variable begins with the definition of that variable. Then, for each variable, there is an initial table providing an overview of the associated subvariables and subvariable settings. This is followed by individual tables for each subvariable, providing the subvariable definition and definitions of possible subvariable settings. The subvariable tables also include “considerations and additional notes” usually pertaining to individual settings. Finally, the subvariable tables list other variables and subvariables whose settings would most likely be linked to the subvariable described in the table. However, these are not the only possible links that may exist.

Exercise planners should use these tables as a tool to select the subvariable or sub-subvariable settings that create the appropriate conditions for their specific exercise. These specific conditions, along with scenarios and road to war, are based upon approved training objectives, the training unit’s METL, and desired exercise-training outcomes. When training for an actual OE in a specific geographical area, the exercise planner can use a TRISA-produced OEA that indicates the settings required to replicate that particular OE (see chapter 2).

The impacts of the PMESII-PT variables on exercise design are significant. As discussed in chapter 2, the PMESII-PT variables and their subvariable and sub-subvariable settings provide a comprehensive framework to determine the training conditions within an OE. These conditions can affect the training unit and OPFOR positively and negatively across the full spectrum of operations as well as at the strategic, operational, and tactical levels. Using these variables assists the commander in training his unit in a realistic and challenging environment.

Political Variable

The Political variable describes the distribution of responsibility and power at all levels of governance—formally constituted authorities, as well as informal political powers. The political variable includes influential political groups and the collective attitude of the population towards the U.S. The specific Political subvariables and their settings are depicted in table 3-1. Their associated definitions, considerations, additional notes, and external links are listed separately in tables 3-2 through 3-6.

Table 3-1. Political variable and subvariable settings

Variable	Political
Subvariable	Attitude toward the United States	Centers of Political Power	Type of Government	Government Effectiveness and Legitimacy	Influential Political Groups
Subvariable Settings	Friendly	Tribal	Dictatorship/ Authoritarian	Effective: Stable	Pro- Government
	Neutral/ Ambivalent	Town/District	Theocracy	Vulnerable: Recovering	Opposition
	Hostile	Provincial	Representative Government	Vulnerable: Failing	Coalition
		National/ Regional	Anarchy	Crisis: Failing
				Crisis: Failed

Table 3-2. Political: attitude toward the United States

Definition: Describes the attitude of the government toward the United States and specifically toward the presence and actions of U.S. and/or coalition forces. (Once established, this subvariable manifests itself in the scenario in the form of role player instructions or combat instructions to the OPFOR.)
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Friendly	Describes an overall favorable, positive recep­tion of the U.S. and/or coalition forces activities, presence, and initiatives.	Role-player sub-instructions limited to 20% of subversive activities against the training unit's intentions. Takes the form of infiltration, over­ looking of criminal activities, active support of OPFOR. Also necessitates 20% of role-player support in the form of tips. Limits infiltration and scripted sabotage against the training unit’s actions. High level of tips (4 to 5 per day) and populace cooperation against OPFOR activities.
Neutral/Ambivalent	Describes an undecided reception of the U.S. and/or coalition forces’ activities, presence, and initiatives.	Role-player sub-instructions limited to 30% of the scenario population engaged in some form of subversive activities against the training unit's intentions. Takes the form of infiltration, over­ looking of criminal activities, and active support of OPFOR. Also necessitates 15% of role-player support in the form of tips. Increased infiltration and scripted sabotage against the training unit's actions. Moderate level of tips, (2 to 3 per day) and populace cooperation against OPFOR ac­tivities.
Hostile	Describes an unfavorable, negative reaction to the U.S. and/or coalition forces’ activities, pres­ence, and initiatives.	Role-player sub-instructions limited to 40% of the scenario population engaged in some form of subversive activities against the training unit's intentions. Takes the form of infiltration, over­ looking of criminal activities, and active support of OPFOR. Heavy infiltration and scripted sabo­tage against the training unit's actions. Low level of tips (1 to 2 per day) and populace coopera­tion against OPFOR activities.
Subvariable Links: Political: Type of Government; Social: Education Level; Economic: Employment Status.

Table 3-3. Political: centers of political power

Definition: Determines the types of bureaucratic divisions and/or centers of power within a government. Also includes the level of governmental span of control from tribal to regional/national level. An example would be tribal and town/district, with a primary focus on town/district matters.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Tribal	Tribal focus, limited government or government of limited influence. Characterized by tribal eld­ers, religious figureheads.	Requires tribal elders, some town element man­ning, and portions of the other role-playing requirements element (such as NGOs, and host or allied nation military presence).
Town/District	Town and some district focus in the government day-to-day operations.	Requires district and town elements.
Provincial	Provincial and minimal cross-border focus by the local and provincial government.	Some regional (international) elements and story themes present in the scenario. Govern­ment role-players adopt a national focus at the expense of local and tribal needs. Depending upon the government type and status, up to one full role-player provincial government, district, town, and other group will be required to fully replicate the level of government specified.
National/Regional	International and cross-border focus based on the existence of multiple regions or national borders in the scenario OE.	Also requires provincial, district, town, other elements (manned at some level of capacity).
Subvariable Links: Political: Type of Government; Social: Education level, Ethnic Diversity: Infrastructure: Transportation.

Table 3-4. Political: type of government

Definition: Determines the type of government structure and associated behaviors encountered.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Dictatorship/Authoritarian	A mode of government characterized by the existence of a single ruler or group who arro­gate to themselves and monopolize power in the state, exercising it without restraint.	For live training requires robust domestic security apparatus, bureaucratic institutions, and bloated role-player government structure (1.5 normal manning).
Theocracy	A government ruled by or subject to religious authority. A system of government in which God or a deity is held to be the civil ruler.	Can only occur in the first two categories of social religious diversity.
Representative Government	A representative form of government—either democratic, republic, or  parliamentary in form—with elected representatives and ex­ecutives. All politics are governed by will of people and government has limited, defined powers over the population.	Requires specific, prominent influencers, council members be present in the scenario (in addition to the normal role-player govern­ment positions).
Anarchy	Absence of any form of political authority. Political disorder and confusion. Absence of any cohesive principle, such as a common standard or purpose.	Tribal and religious role-players present in scenario. Small percentage of disenfran­chised or former government officials with little influence.
Subvariable Links: Economic: Illegal Economic Activity, Social: Education Level, Religious Diversity, Criminal Activity.

Table 3-5. Political: government effectiveness and legitimacy

Definition: Effectiveness refers to the capability of the government to work with society to assure the provision of order and public goods and services. Legitimacy refers to the perception by important segments of society that the government is exer­cising state power in ways that are reasonably fair and in the interests of the nation as a whole.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Effective: Stable	The government is able and willing to provide adequate security and essential services to significant portions of its country’s population. It provides military and police services that secure borders and limit crime, while being reasonable, equitable, and without major violation of human rights. It provides basic services that generally meet demand. Political institutions, processes, norms, and leaders are acceptable to the citizenry and ensure adequate response to citi­zen needs.	For CTC replication, full complement of all spe­cified role-player government positions required in the provincial, district and town elements. Government manning determined by the type of government selected. Defined as 60-75% of all government services provided throughout the OE, 60-75% of all infrastructures present and functioning. Limited civil unrest. Limited gover­nance issues and themes (no more than three). 1-2 instances of civil unrest or riots as a result of those issues and themes.
Vulnerable: Recovering	The government is recovering from crisis and still either unable or unwilling to provide ade­quate security and essential services to all of the population. The legitimacy of the central government may still be in question. Limited civil unrest.	The government is only partially manned and capable of administering its area. For CTC rep­lication, requires 3/4 complement of all specified role-player government positions within the OE. Defined as 40-60% of all government services provided throughout the OE, 60-75% of all infra­ structures present and functioning. Moderate governance issues and themes (4-6, 2 of which are interrelated). Multiple (3-4) instances of civil unrest or riots as a result of those issues and themes.
Vulnerable: Failing	The government is becoming either unable or unwilling to provide adequate security and es­sential services to significant portions of the population. The legitimacy of the central gov­ernment is falling into question. Increasing civil unrest.	The government is only partially manned and capable of administering its area. For CTC rep­lication, requires 3/4 complement of all specified role-player government positions within the OE. Defined as 40-60% of all government services provided throughout the OE, 60-75% of all infrastructures present and functioning. Moderate governance issues and themes (4-6, 2 of which are interrelated). Multiple (3-4) instances of civil unrest or riots as a result of those issues and themes.
Crisis: Failing	The central government does not exert effective control over all the country’s territory. It is be­coming unable or unwilling to provide security and essential services for significant portions of the population. The central government may be weak, nonexistent, or simply unable or unwilling to provide security or basic services. There is great risk of violent internal conflict.	The government is partially manned and mini­mally capable of administering its area. For CTC replication requires 1/2 or fewer complement of all specified role-player government positions within the OE. Defined as 20-40% of all gov­ernment services provided throughout the OE, 60-75% of all infrastructures present and func­tioning. High level of governance issues and themes (8-10, 4 of which are interrelated). Mul­tiple (5-6) instances of civil unrest or riots as a result of those issues and themes.
Crisis: Failed	The central government does not exert effective control over the country’s territory. It is unable to provide security and essential services for sig­nificant portions of the population. The central government is weak, nonexistent, or simply unable to provide security or basic services. Violent internal conflict is a reality.	The government is partially manned and largely incapable of administering its area. For CTC replication requires 1/4 or fewer complement of all specified role-player government positions within the OE. Defined as 20-40% of all gov­ernment services provided throughout the OE, 60-75% of all infrastructures present and func­tioning. High level of  governance issues and themes (8-10, 4 of which are interrelated). Mul­tiple (5-6) instances of civil unrest or riots as a result of those issues and themes.
Subvariable Links: Political: Governance, Stability; Infrastructure: Utilities Present, Services Level.

Table 3-6. Political: influential political groups

Definition: Describes the number and specifies the interaction and influence of various political groups within the country, region, province, district, or town. Helps define the level of government cohesion and strife within the government.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Pro-Government	Major political parties generally support the government in power. Minimal dissent and is­sues of contention.	Presented and manifested in OE through script­ing and role-player sub-instructions. If desired, minor issues may result in slight disruption of essential government functions if unaddressed or not resolved by the training unit.
Coalitions	Different political groups with competing inter­ests and vary in their support of the government. Establishes conditions for moderate disruption of essential government functions and social volatility.	Requires the establishment of up to three differ­ ent political groups with at least two competing interests to be written into the scenario key events, back-stories, and role-player sub- instructions. Conflicts should be executed or presented during the training exercise, using power bases and role-player influencers. Issues should result in the moderate disruption of es­sential government functions if unaddressed or not resolved by the training unit.
Opposition	Different political groups are opposed to the government with competing interests. Estab­lishes conditions for major disruption of essen­tial government functions and social volatiltits the establishment of up to three differ­ent political groups with at least two competing interests to be written into the scenario key events, back-stories, and role-player sub- instructions. Conflicts should be executed or presented during the training exercise, using power bases and role-player influencers. Issues should result in the major disruption of essential government functions if unaddressed or not resolved by the training unit.	Requires the establishment of up to three differ­ent political groups with at least two competing interests to be written into the scenario key events, back-stories, and role-player sub- instructions. Conflicts should be executed or presented during the training exercise, using power bases and role-player influencers. Issues should result in the major disruption of essential government functions if unaddressed or not resolved by the training unit.
Subvariable Links: Social: Social Volatility, Education Level; Economic: Economic Diversity, Employment Status.

Military Variable

The Military variable explores the military and/or paramilitary capabilities of all relevant actors (enemy, friendly, and neutral) in a given OE. This includes nonmilitary armed and unarmed combatants. The variable focuses on giving the exercise planner the ability to design appropriate OPFOR units for full spectrum operations. The specific military subvariables and their settings are depicted in table 3-7. Their associated definitions, considerations, additional notes, and external links are listed separately in tables 3-8 through 3-13.

Table 3-7. Military variable and subvariable settings

Variable	Military
Subvariable	Military Forces	Government Military Forces	Non-State Paramilitary Forces	Unarmed Comba­ tants	Nonmilitary Armed Combatants	Military Functions
Subvariable Settings	Predominantly Tank and Mechanized Infantry	Operating Independently	Insurgent Forces	Information Warfare Personnel	Predominantly Neutral	C2
	Predominantly Infantry	Supplementing Regular Military	Guerrilla Forces	Media (Affiliated)	Predominantly Friendly	Maneuver
	None	Operating as Combat Forces	Criminal Organizations	Medical (Affiliated)	Predominantly Hostile and Supporting Enemy	Information Warfare
			Private Security Organizations	Active Sup­porters	Undetermined	RISTA
				Coerced or Unwitting		Fire Support
				Financiers		Protection
				See complete settings at table 3-11.		Logistics

Table 3-8. Military: military forces

Definition: Specifies the types and sizes of military forces present within an OE.
Subvariable Settings	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Predominantly Tank and Mechanized Infantry	Regular military forces consisting predominantly (at least 40%) of tank and mechanized infantry forces with some infantry (non-mechanized).	For specific tier level weapon systems, refer to Worldwide Equipment Guide (WEG) available online at https://www.us.army.mil/suite/files/14751393.
Predominantly Infantry	Regular military forces consisting predominantly (more than 60%) of infantry forces (non­ mechanized) with some tank and mechanized infantry forces.
None	No regular military forces present.
Subvariable Links: Social: Education Level; Economic: Employment Status; Terrain: Landforms.

Table 3-9. Military: government paramilitary forces

Definition: Describes government forces that are distinct from regular armed forces, but resembling them in organization, training, or mission.
Subvariable Settings	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Operating Independently	Not subordinate to or affiliated with regular mili­ tary forces.	May include organizations such as police, bor­ der guards, customs agents, and other internal security forces.
Supplementing Regular Military	Affiliated with or subordinate to regular military forces but performing primarily non-combat roles.	Same as above with the exception that these forces are either part of the military force or can be mobilized to support the military force.
Operating as Combat Forces	Affiliated with or subordinate to regular military forces and performing combat missions. (Units are equipped with light weapons and sometimes heavy weapons and armored vehicles.)	Same as above with the exception that these forces are trained and equipped for combat missions. Depending on the OE, they may be equipped with light or heavy weapon systems.
Subvariable Links: Military: Non-State Paramilitary Forces; Economic: Employment Status.

Table 3-10. Military: non-state paramilitary forces

Definition: Describes forces or groups that are distinct from regular armed forces of any country, but resembling them in organization, training, or mission (JP 1-02 and FM 3-07). These forces or groups may also operate in a combination of two or more of the subvariable settings below. (Not government forces.)
Subvariable Settings	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Insurgent Forces	An insurgency is an organized movement aimed at the overthrow of a constituted government through use of subversion and armed conflict. (JP 3-05). Insurgent forces are groups that conduct irregu­lar or unconventional warfare within the borders of their country in order to undermine or overthrow a constituted government or civil authority.	The distinction between terrorists and insur­gents is often blurred because of the tactics employed by each. Some terrorists groups have become insurgent organizations, while insurgent organizations have used terror tactics. An insur­gent organization may use more than one form of tactics and, based on its strategy, its actions could cut across the entire spectrum of war­fare—employing terror, guerrilla, and conven­tional military tactics to achieve its goals. Typi­cally, most insurgent groups use the first two.
Guerrilla Forces	A guerrilla force is a group of irregular, predominantly indigenous personnel organized along military lines to conduct military and pa­ramilitary operations in enemy-held, hostile, or denied territory. (JP 3-05)	Some guerrilla organizations may constitute a paramilitary arm of an insurgent movement, while others may pursue guerrilla warfare inde­pendently from or loosely affiliated with an in­surgent organization. Compared to insurgent organizations as a whole, guerrilla organizations have a more military-like structure. (FM 7-100.4)
Criminal Organizations	Criminal organizations are non-ideological groups of people organized for the purpose of acquiring money by illegal means.	Criminal organizations may employ criminal actions, terror tactics, and militarily unconventional methods to achieve their goals. When mutual interests exist, criminal organizations may combine efforts with insurgent and/or guer­rilla organizations controlling or operating in the same area. A congruence of interests can also result in criminal organizations having a close relationship with an established government. (FM 7-100.4)
Private Security Organizations	Private security organizations (PSOs) are busi­ness enterprises or local ad hoc groups that provide security and/or intelligence services, on a contractual or self-interest basis, to protect and preserve a person, facility, or operation. (FM 7-100.4).	A PSO sometimes acts as an adjunct to other security measures, and provides advisors, instruction, and personnel for host-nation military, paramilitary, and police forces, as well as for private individuals and businesses (including transnational corporations).
Subvariable Links: Political: Government Effectiveness and Legitimacy; Social: Education Level; Economic: Economic Activity.

Table 3-11. Military: unarmed combatants

Definition: Specifies the types of unarmed personnel who, given the right conditions, may decide to purposely and materially support hostile military or paramilitary forces in ways that do not involve possessing or using weapons. Even unarmed indi­viduals who are coerced into performing or supporting hostile actions and those who do so unwittingly can, in some cases, be categorized as combatants. (FM 7-100.4)
Subvariable Settings	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Information Warfare Personnel	Self-explanatory.	The intent of this subvariable is to provide a menu list from which to select those personnel or activities that provide direct or indirect support to an insurgency or similar activity. Providing these selected settings as part of an insurgency in an OE en­hances a unit’s training by experiencing a more complete, realistic, and complex environment.
Media (Affiliated)	Self-explanatory.
Medical (Affiliated)	Self-explanatory.
Active Supporters	Self-explanatory.
Coerced, Unwitting Supporters	Self-explanatory.
Financiers	Self-explanatory.
Suppliers	Self-explanatory.
Lookouts	Self-explanatory.
Couriers	Self-explanatory.
IED Factory Workers	Self-explanatory.
Intelligence Collection	Self-explanatory.
Targeting Information	Self-explanatory.
Leaders (Religious, Political, Secular, Tribal, Cultural)	Self-explanatory.
Technicians and Specialists	Self-explanatory.
Criminal (Affiliated)	Self-explanatory.
Transporters	Self-explanatory.
Asylum Providers/Protectors	Self-explanatory.
Recruiters	Self-explanatory.
Camera/Video Operators	Self-explanatory.
IED Trigger Personnel	Self-explanatory.
Other Affiliated Support	Self-explanatory.
None	No unarmed combatants present.
Subvariable Links: Political: Attitude toward the United States; Economic: Economic Activity; Military: Non-State Paramilita­ry Forces, Military Functions.

Table 3-12. Military: nonmilitary armed combatants

Definition: Describes nonmilitary personnel who are armed but not part of an organized paramilitary or military structure. Nevertheless, they may be disgruntled and hostile. They may also be neutral or they may support either the enemy or friend­ly (U.S. or host nation) forces. Any number of catalysts might cause them to pick a side or change sides. Their decision may or may not remain permanent. (FM 7-100.4)
Subvariable Settings	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Predominantly Neutral	At least 50 percent neutral, with the remainder split between friendly, hostile, or undetermined.
Predominantly Friendly	At least 50 percent friendly to U.S. or host na­tion forces, with the remainder split between neutral, hostile, or undetermined.
Predominantly Hostile and Support­ing Enemy	At least 50 percent hostile to U.S. or host nation forces or supporting the enemy, with the re­mainder split between neutral, friendly, or unde­termined.
Undetermined	Unable to categorize relationship.	This setting may be used to support training objectives related to determining or responding correctly to nonmilitary armed combatants whose affiliation is unknown.
Subvariable Links: Military: Unarmed Combatants; Social: Education Level; Economic: Economic Status.

Table 3-13. Military: military functions

Definition: A military function is a group of related tasks, activities, capabilities, operations, processes, and organizations that fulfill the specific military purpose for which they all exist. When integrated with other such functions, they contribute to the accomplishment of larger missions. The subvariable settings (functions) listed below exist in varying degrees in most military organizations, as well as in some paramilitary organizations. Thus, military functions as sub-subvariables can have settings on a scale of High, Medium, or Low, defined as follows: High: Can conduct sustained, complex, synchronized tasks of the selected military function; ability to influence friendly forces is not limited to the theater of operations; and/or associated equipment is predominantly Tier 1, as specified in the Worldwide Equipment Guide (WEG). Medium: Can conduct limited, complex, synchronized tasks of the selected military function; ability to influence friendly forces is primarily limited to the theater of operations; and/or associated equipment is predominantly Tier 2, as specified in the WEG. Low: Cannot conduct complex, synchronized tasks of the selected military function; ability to influence friendly forces is limited to local, tactical impact; and/or associated equipment is predominantly Tier 3 and below, as specified in the WEG.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Command and Control	Command and control (C2) is the actions of commanders, command groups, and staffs of military headquarters to maintain continual combat readi­ness and combat efficiency of forces, to plan and prepare for combat operations, and to provide leadership and direction during the execution of assigned missions. (FM 7-100.1)
Maneuver	Maneuver is the employment of forces in the oper­ational area through movement in combination with fires to achieve a position of advantage in respect to the enemy in order to accomplish the mission. (JP 3-0) This function includes direct fire, as well as mobility support and countermobility operations.
INFOWAR	Information warfare (INFOWAR) is the specifically planned and integrated actions taken to achieve an information advantage at critical points and times. (FM 7-100.1)	This function is linked to Information: Informa­ tion Warfare, which addresses each of the seven elements of information warfare.
RISTA	Reconnaissance, intelligence, surveillance, and target acquisition (RISTA) is the combination of capabilities, operations, and activities using all available means to obtain information concerning foreign nations; areas of actual or potential opera­tions; and/or the strength, capabilities, location, status, nature of operations, and intentions of hos­ tile or potentially hostile forces or elements. It in­cludes production of intelligence resulting from the collection, processing, integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of such information. It also includes detection, identification, and location of a target in sufficient detail to permit the effective employment of weapons.	RISTA includes UAVs used for reconnais­sance. This function is linked to Information: Intelligence.
Fire Support	Fire support is the collective and coordinated use of target acquisition, indirect fire weapons, aircraft, and other lethal and nonlethal means in support of operational or tactical objectives. (FM 7-100.1)	Includes offensive use of CBRN weapons. This function is linked to the target acquisition portion of the RISTA function (above).
Protection	Protection is the preservation of the effectiveness and survivability of mission-related military and nonmilitary personnel (combatants and noncomba­tants), equipment, facilities, information, and infrastructure against an adversary’s attempts to dam­age, degrade, or negate them and measures to minimize the effects of such threats. The protec­tion function includes survivability measures, air and missile defense, and CBRN defense. It also includes information protection and security meas­ures, which are an element of information warfare	This function is linked to Information: Informa­tion Warfare: Protection and Security Meas­ures and, therefore, to the Information War­ fare setting under Military: Military Functions (above). It is also linked to Information Secu­rity as a subset of Information: Information Management and to the Infrastructure variable.
Logistics	Logistics is the support activities required to sus­tain operations. (FM 7-100.1)
Subvariable Links: See notes on individual military functions, above.

Economic Variable

The Economic variable encompasses individual and group behaviors related to producing, distributing, and consuming resources. Specific factors impacting behavior may include economic diversity and employment opportunities within an OE. Other factors include black market or underground economies, which are alternative structures indicating weaknesses in the mainstream economy. Such factors influence people’s decisions to alter or support the existing order. These decisions, if unresolved through legitimate political means, can lead to conflict. The specific economic subvariables and their settings represent replicable economic conditions that may be present within an OE and are depicted in table 3-14. Their associated definitions, considerations, additional notes, and external links are listed separately in tables 3-15 through 3-19.

Table 3-14. Economic variable and subvariable settings

Variable	Economic
Subvariable	Economic Diversity	Employment Status	Economic Activity	Illegal Economic Activity	Banking and Finance
Subvariable Settings	Multiple Industries (None Predominant)	High Unemployment	Predominantly Legal	Smuggling	Informal
	Multiple Industries (Single Predominant)	Medium Unemployment	Mixed	Theft	Developing Formal
	Single Industry Present	Low Unemployment	Predominantly Illegal	Gang	Advanced Formal
				Black Market
				Mixed
				Piracy

Table 3-15. Economic: economic diversity

Definition: Describes three different economic industries (mining, manufacturing, or agricultural) and their relative mix that may exist in a given country.
Subvariable Settings	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Multiple Industries (None Predominant)	Describes the condition where multiple industries are present in an economy. All three indus­tries are roughly equivalent in terms of their overall contribution to the overall economy.	For live training exercises, a series of props, role-player instructions and scripted activities are required that replicate a complete agricul­ture, mining, manufacturing infrastructure to include harvesting, processing, and distribution. Minimum material requirements include one barn, one grain silo, one planting field; one mineshaft and distribution site; one factory with one shop selling at least one specific product line and one distribution center.
Multiple Industries (Single Predominant)	Describes the condition where multiple industries are present in an economy but one of the industries is more productive relative to the others.	Same as above with the exception that the se­lected predominant industry will require at least twice the amount of props and role-players to replicate predominance in that nation’s econo­my. Any single industry selected as predominant will cause exercise planners to ensure the preponderance of storylines, themes, and role- players are focused on that industry and all of its associated parts.
Single Industry Present	Describes the condition of a single, economical­ly significant industry.	Same as above except that the selected pre­dominant industry is the only one present and should also be at least twice the size of the multiple industry setting. The industry theme selected acts as the focal point for all economic storylines, themes, and role-players focused on that industry and its sustainment.
Subvariable Links: Economic: Employment Status; Social: Education Level; Infrastructure: Urban Zones, Transportation Architecture.

Table 3-16. Economic: employment status

Definition: Represents the overall employment status of the populace.
Subvariable Settings	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
High Unemployment	2/3 unemployment.	For live training exercises it manifests itself in specific role assignments and sub-instructions for role-players.
Moderate Unemployment	1/2 unemployment.
Low Unemployment	Majority employed.
Subvariable Links: Economic: Economic Diversity; Social: Education Level; Political: Government Effectiveness and Legi­timacy.

Table 3-17. Economic: economic activity

Definition: Describes the type of economic activity present in an AO. (Manifests itself in a live training environment in the form of specific activities, number of role-players required to replicate the behavior, and scenario design instructions in the form of role descriptions for different activities.)
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Predominantly Illegal	Economy lacking many products and services; black market operations robbery, smuggling, and organized crime are widespread.	For live training exercises, it will require a role-player special mission element to replicate those conditions. Or will require sufficient role-player instructions and character instructions to replicate these activities. Black market and smuggling are represented by three or more types of illicit goods being traded—one or more necessary to population well being.
Mixed	Legal economy mixed with some smuggling and black market trade in controlled items.	Will require half role-player special mission element to replicate limited black market and some organized crime. Will also require at least two smuggling or black market trading themes written into the scenario storyline in the form of role-player instructions. Also requires govern­ment ministers and regulation (customs) ministries to regulate economy.
Predominantly Legal	Limited black market, robbery, or organized crime activities.	Types of crime replicated: petty theft and limited drug or single item smuggling, distribution and sales. Requires up to 2 role-player special mis­sion elements worth of personnel to populate district markets and replicate regional trade and limited black market activity. Also requires gov­ernment ministers and regulation (customs) ministries to regulate economy.
Subvariable Links: Political: Type of Government; Economic: Employment Status; Social: Education Level, Social Volatility.

Table 3-18. Economic: illegal economic activity

Definition: Describes the predominant type of illegal economic activities present in the AO.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Smuggling	The acquisition, distribution, and sale of a controlled, restricted, or forbidden item.	Requires the replication of all aspects of the distribution chain, from suppliers to mules, to retail customers. For live Socitraining exercises, each activity represented requires 1/4 of the role-player special mission element to replicate the activity, and role-player instructions, in addi­tion to scenario storyline.
Theft/Looting	Small theft rings that acquire and distribute stolen property.	Same as above.
Gang/Organized Crime	Criminal activities such as bribery, coercion, thuggery, protection racket, and inter-gang riva­lry.	Same as above.
Black Market	The underground economy or black market is a market where all commerce is conducted with­out regard to taxation, law, or regulations of trade.	Same as above.
Piracy	Robbery, hijacking, or other acts of violence on the high seas. Can also include acts committed in other major bodies of water or on a shore.	Same as above.
Mixed/Multiple Activities	Multiple above-mentioned activities present in the AO.	Same as above in addition representation by multiple key events occurring during the scena­rio play.
Subvariable Links: Political: Government Effectiveness and Legitimacy; Economic: Economic Activity, Social: Criminal Activity.

Table 3-19. Economic: banking and finance

Definition: A bank is a financial institution whose primary activity is to act as a payment agent for customers and to borrow and lend money. It is an institution for receiving, keeping, and lending money in hopes of repayment. A private moneylender offers small personal loans at high rates of interest, usually higher rates than the market rate charged on credit cards or on bank overdrafts.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Informal	A private moneylender type arrangement.	For live training exercises, currency require­ments are enough denominations of currency to issue 20 bills of various denominations to each role-player present in the AO. Requires at least one moneylender, with currency per town.
Developing-Formal	Mixture of private moneylenders and banking infrastructure.	Same as above. Also includes a bank building with props per town.
Advanced-Formal	Banking infrastructure prevalent throughout the AO. Private money lending restricted to criminal/gang activity.	Same as above.
Subvariable Links: Political: Type of Government; Social: Education Level, Information: Public Communications Media.

Social Variable

The Social variable describes the cultural, religious, and ethnic makeup within an OE and the beliefs, values, customs, and behaviors of society members. Societies are comprised of structured and overlapping groups and institutions, each with relative statuses and roles that support, enable, and provide opportunity to achieve personal or community expectations. Important characteristics of a social system include population demographics, migration trends, and diversity of religious and ethnic groups. Understanding these complex interrelationships in a society is vitally important for successful military missions. The specific social subvariables and their settings represent replicable social conditions that may be present within an OE and are depicted in table 3-20. Their associated definitions, considerations, additional notes, and external links are listed separately in tables 3-21 through 3-29.

Table 3-20. Social variable and subvariable settings

Variable			Social
Subvariable	Demographic Mix	Social Volatility	Education Level	Ethnic Diversity	Religious Diversity
Subvariable Settings	Balanced	Low	Limited	Single (Non-Competitive)	Single (Non-Competitive)
	Unbalanced, Gender	Moderate	Moderate	Multiple (Competitive, Single Predominant)	Multiple (Competitive, Single Predominant)
	Unbalanced, Age	High	High	Multiple (Competitive, None Predominant)	Multiple (Competitive, None Predominant)
	Unbalanced, Gender and Age
Subvariable	Population Movement	Common Languages	Criminal Activity	Human Rights
Subvariable Settings	Settled, Stable	Single	Limited	Women
	Mixed	Multiple (One Preferred)	Moderate	Human Trafficking
	Migrant	Multiple (None Preferred)	High	Child Warriors
	IDPs			Torture
	Refugees			Genocide
				Slavery

Table 3-21. Social: demographic mix

Definition: Describes the gender and military age balance of the population.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Balanced	A population consisting of equal proportions of gender and military age.
Unbalanced, Gender	A population consisting of an unequal proportion by gender (male, female) in relation to the over­all group. The military age proportion of the population is not affected and remains the same as if it were in a balanced setting.	If an unstable society is desired in constructing an OE for training, this subvariable should be combined with other negative settings from other Social subvariables (see subvariable links below).     (continued)
Unbalanced, Age	A population consisting of a greater proportion of the military age (male, female) in relation to the overall population. The gender proportion of the population is not affected and remains the same as if it were in a balanced setting.
Unbalanced, Gender and Age	A population consisting of unequal proportions of gender (male, female) and military age in relation to the overall group.
Subvariable Links: Political: Type of Government; Social: Social Volatility; Education Level, Criminal Activity, Human Rights.

Table 3-22. Social: social volatility

Definition: Describes the amount of conflict between religious or ethnic groups present in a society and the amount of civil unrest present.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Low	Low intergroup conflicts. Civil unrest is minimal. No significant refugee presence. High religious, ethnic, and political diversity.	1-2 preplanned or spontaneous riots or civil disorders based on religious or ethnic strife present within the scenario.
Moderate	Moderate intergroup conflicts. Civil unrest is sporadic. Minimal refugee presence. Some lack of religious, ethnic, and political diversity.	3-4 preplanned or spontaneous riots or civil disorders based on religious or ethnic strife present within the scenario.
High	High intergroup conflicts. Civil unrest is signifi­cant. Large refugee presence. Significant lack of religious, ethnic, and political diversity.	5-6 preplanned or spontaneous riots or civil disorders based on religious or ethnic strife present within the scenario.
Subvariable Links: Political: Government Effectiveness and Legitimacy; Social: Ethnic Diversity, Religious Diversity, Educa­ tion Level.

Table 3-23. Social: education level

Definition: Describes the education level of the population. (Helps determine the scripting requirements and may introduce specific scenario sub-themes into an OE.)
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Limited	Limited population literacy and education. Primi­tive education infrastructure and high unem­ployment.	Recommend 1/4 role-player population literate or educated for live training exercises. Limited education infrastructure and jobs (no more than 5%).
Moderate	Moderate population literacy and education. Some education infrastructure and moderate unemployment.	Recommend 1/2 role-player population literate or educated. Moderate amount of education infrastructure and jobs (no more than 10%).
High	High population literacy and education. Signifi­cant education infrastructure and low unem­ployment.	Recommend 3/4 role-player population literate or educated. High amount of education infrastructure and jobs (no more than 15%).
Subvariable Links: Political: Government Effectiveness and Legitimacy; Economic: Employment Status; Social: Social Vo­latility.

Table 3-24. Social: ethnic diversity

Definition: Describes the number and specifies the interaction of various ethnic groups within a given population.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Single Group, Non-Competitive	Self-explanatory.
Multiple Group, Competitive, Single Predominant	Up to three distinct ethnic groups distributed throughout a given area with one group clearly identifiable as the dominant population.	Role-player population with one group as the dominant population.
Multiple Group, Competitive, None Predominant	Three or more distinct ethnic groups distributed throughout a given area with no group designat­ed as the dominant population.	Role-player population with no group designated as the dominant population.
Subvariable Links: Social: Religious Diversity, Social Volatility, Population Movement, Common Languages.

Table 3-25. Social: religious diversity

Definition: Describes the number and specifies the interaction of various religious groups within a state or scenario popula­ tion.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Single Religion, Non- Competitive	Self-explanatory.
Multiple Religions, Competitive, Single Predominant	Up to three distinct religious groups distributed within a given area with one group as the domi­nant population.	Role-player population with one group as the dominant population.
Multiple Religions, Competitive, None Predominant	Up to three distinct religious groups distributed within a given area with no group designated as the dominant population.	Role-player population with no group designated as the dominant population.
Subvariable Links: Social: Ethnic Diversity, Social Volatility, Population Movement, Common Languages.

Table 3-26. Social: population movement

Definition: Describes the initial prevalence of migrant populations, internally displaced persons, and refugees within a coun­try, region, or area. (This designation does not preclude the possibility of migrant populations as a result of the training unit's action or inaction.)
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Settled, Stable	Population is settled, organized, and does not move or displace except when confronted with occasions of extreme duress.
Mixed	Part of population is settled and part moves frequently.	Population movement is based on the training unit's activities or pre-scripted as a scenario sub-event in response to training needs.
Migrant	Population frequently moves as a part of the normal state of affairs.	1-2 special mission elements’ worth of role-players. Will cause the Political: Centers of Po­litical Power subvariable to most likely be Tribal.
Internally Displaced Persons	A person who is involuntary moved inside the national boundaries of his or her country.
Refugees	A person who, by reason of real or imagined danger, has left their home country or country of their nationality and is unwilling or unable to return.
Subvariable Links: Economic: Employment Status; Economic Diversity; Social: Social Volatility, Common Languages

Table 3-27. Social: common languages

Definition: The preferred language(s) of a specific country or region or lack thereof.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Single Preferred and Predominant Language	Self-explanatory.
Multiple Languages with One the Preferred Language	Country or region where several languages exist but one is recognized and used by the population as the preferred language.	For CTC replication, requires relatively high resources and support for an OE with multiple languages in terms of role-players and interpreters.
Multiple Languages with No Preferred or Predominant Language	Country or region where there is no preferred or predominant language. Frequently found in failed nation-states or states where the na­tional language is not used except in specia­lized areas such as commerce.	Same as above.
Subvariable Links: Social: Demographic Mix, Ethnic Diversity, Population Movement.

Table 3-28. Social: criminal activity

Definition: Defines the level of criminal activity present in a society.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Limited	Limited criminal activity.	For CTC replication, 1-2 activities present from criminal activity. Limited to up to 30% of the total urban land­scape.
Moderate	Moderate criminal activity present.	For CTC replication, 1-3 activities present from criminal activity. Limited to up to 50% of the total urban landscape. Presence of at least one criminal gang distributed throughout the scenario environment.
High	High criminal activity present.	For CTC replication, 3-4 activities present from criminal activity. Two or more rival criminal gangs or organiza­tions present and active in the scenario (manifested by competition, gang or mob warfare). Limited to presence in 75% of the total urban landscape.
Subvariable Links: Political: Type of Government; Military: Non-State Paramilitary Forces; Economic: Illegal Economic Activity.

Table 3-29. Social: human rights

Definition: Human rights refer to the basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled. Examples of rights and freedoms that have come to be commonly thought of as human rights include: civil and political rights, such as the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, and equality before the law; and economic and social rights, including the right to participate in culture, the right to food, the right to work, and the right to education. The most widely recognized international documentation of human rights is the 1948 UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which has been ratified by the majority of the world’s nations. However, many nations still struggle or refuse to implement all of the provisions of this declaration. Understanding whether and to what extent each country or region is complying with internationally recognized human rights is critical to the success of military operations. Below are some of the more blatant areas of violation within human rights. These are areas the U.S. military has faced in the recent past that may be important to understand in a future AO.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Women	Issues relating to the political, economic, civil, social, and educational rights of women.	Examples of issues related to these areas are voting rights, employment discrimination, sexual discrimination, honor killings, forced and early marriages, reproductive rights, health care, and educational discrimination.
Human Trafficking	Human trafficking is the commerce and trade in the movement or migration of people, legal and illegal, including legitimate labor activities as well as forced labor. The term is used in a more narrow sense by advocacy groups to mean the recruitment, transportation, harboring, or receipt of people for the purposes of slavery, prostitu­tion, forced labor (including bonded labor or debt bondage), and servitude.	Human trafficking is the fastest growing criminal industry in the world, with the total annual reve­nue for trafficking in persons estimated to be between $5 billion and $9 billion. (Fact Sheet 1, Economic Roots of Trafficking in the UNECE Region, Geneva, 15 Dec 04).
Child Warriors	Child warriors are the result of forced or com­pulsory recruitment of anyone under the age of 18 for use in armed conflict. This can include children taking direct part in hostilities or used in support roles such as porters, spies, messen­gers, or lookouts.	In over 20 countries around the world, children are direct participants in war. Denied a child­hood and often subjected to horrific violence, an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 children are serv­ing as soldiers for both rebel groups and gov­ernment forces in current armed conflicts.
Torture	Torture, according to the UN Convention Against Torture, is: “any act by which severe pain and suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him, or a third per­son, information or a confession, punishing him for an act he or a third person has committed or is suspected of having committed, or intimidat­ing or coercing him or a third person, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind, when such pain or suffering is inflicted by or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquies­cence of a public official or other person acting in an official capacity. It does not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in, or inci­dental to, lawful sanctions.”	Torture is widely considered to be a violation of human rights, and is declared to be unaccepta­ble by Article 5 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Signatories of the Third Ge­neva Convention and Fourth Geneva Conven­tion officially agree not to torture prisoners in armed conflicts. Torture is also prohibited Against Torture, which has been ratified by 145 states. However, Amnesty Inter­national estimates that at least 81 world governments currently practice torture, some open­ly.
Genocide	The 1948 UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG). Article 2, defines genocide as: "any of the fol­lowing acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring child­ren of the group to another group.”	To commit genocide, the perpetrators need a strong, centralized authority and bureaucratic organization as well as pathological individuals and criminals. Also required is a campaign of vilification and dehumanization of the victims by the perpetrators, who are usually new states or new regimes attempting to impose conformity to a new ideology and its model of society. Examples of recent acts of genocide are Rwanda, Former Yugoslavia, and Sudan.
Slavery	Slavery is a form of forced labor in which people are considered to be, or treated as, the property of others. Slaves are held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase, or birth, and are deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to receive compensation (such as wag­es).	Evidence of slavery predates written records, and has existed to varying extents, forms and periods in almost all cultures and continents. In some societies, slavery existed as a legal insti­tution or socio-economic system, but today it is formally outlawed in nearly all countries. Never­theless, the practice continues in various forms around the world. Freedom from slavery is an internationally recognized human right. Article 4 of the UDHR states: “No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.”
Subvariable Links: Political: Type of Government; Military: Non-State Paramilitary Forces; Economic: Illegal Economic Activity.

Information Variable

The Information variable describes the nature, scope, characteristics, and effects of individuals, organizations, and systems that collect, process, disseminate, or act on information. Information involves the access, use, manipulation, distribution, and reliance on information technology systems, both civilian and military, by an entity (state or non-state). Understanding whatever communication infrastructure exists in an OE is important because it ultimately controls the flow of information to the population and military and/or paramilitary forces, as well as influencing local and international audiences. Communication availability can act as a leveling function with regard to mitigating military technical advantages to a surprising extent. Military units must understand and engage in the information environment in order to achieve their objectives. The specific information subvariables and their settings represent replicable conditions that may be present within an OE and are depicted in table 3-30. Their associated definitions, considerations, additional notes, and external links are listed separately in tables 3-31 through 3-34.

Table 3-30. Information variable and subvariable settings

Variable	Information
Subvariable	Public Communications Media	Information Warfare	Intelligence	Information Management
Subvariable Settings	Internet	Electronic Warfare	Open-Source Intelligence	Rudimentary
	Television	Computer Warfare	Human Intelligence	Basic
	Radio	Information Attack	Signals Intelligence	Medium
	Print Media	Deception	Imagery Intelligence	Advanced
	Telephone	Physical Destruction
	Postal and Courier Service	Protection and Security Measures
	Word of Mouth	Perception Management

Table 3-31. Information: public communications media

Definition: Describes the type of information or media sources that may be available to the public in an OE. (The individual media as sub-subvariables can have settings reflecting the level of availability: None = nonexistent; Limited = available in large cities only; Moderate = available in cities and some towns; Widespread = available down to town level.)
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Internet	Self-explanatory.	Interruptible, 4-5 building intranet access per town, capable of replicating an Internet capable of hosting at least 6 dynamic pages or sites consisting of the following site types: 2 weblogs, 2 Internet chat rooms, and 2 news websites.
Television	Self-explanatory.	A single channel, cable broadcast capability with a connected studio pro­duction site (located in exercise area), associated personnel, and sufficient programming to broadcast 10 hours per day.
Radio	Self-explanatory.	An AM or FM radio broadcast station, with associated personnel, and the ability to broadcast programming for 10 hours per day for the duration of an exercise. Broadcast and studio facilities would ideally be located in the exercise area to enhance play.
Print Media	Self-explanatory.	Media personnel (role-players) and associated equipment required to create and locally produce a single-page newspaper or flyer. Minimum of one production element present per 2 towns
Telephone	Self-explanatory.	Landline and/or mobile telephone service.
Postal and Courier Service	Self-explanatory.	Postal or courier personnel (role-players) and associated transportation means
Word of Mouth	Self-explanatory.	Scripted instructions to role-players to report specific information, relay certain data, or to spontaneously report on specific activities.
Subvariable Links:  Economic: Banking and Finance; Social: Social Volatility, Ethnic Diversity, Criminal Activity, Common Languages; Information: Information Management; Infrastructure: Utility Level, Utilities Present, Transportation Architecture.

Table 3-32. Information: information warfare

Definition: Information warfare (INFOWAR) is the specifically planned and integrated actions taken to achieve an informa­tion advantage at critical points and times. (FM 7-100.1) INFOWAR consists of seven elements: electronic warfare (EW), computer warfare, information attack, deception, physical destruction, protection and security measures, and perception management. These elements do not exist in isolation from one another and are not mutually exclusive. (FM 7-100.1) (INFOWAR elements as sub-subvariables can have settings on a scale of 1 to 5: 1 = Very Limited; 2 = Limited; 3 = Mod­erate; 4 = Good; 5 = Superior.)
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Electronic Warfare	Consists of countermeasures conducted to control or deny other actors’ use of the electro­magnetic spectrum, while ensuring one’s own use of it. EW capabilities allow an actor to ex­ploit, deceive, degrade, disrupt, damage, or destroy sensors, processors, and C2 nodes. (FM 7-100.1)	At a minimum, the goal of EW is to control the use of the electromagnetic spectrum at critical locations and times or to attack a specific system. To accomplish these EW goals and objectives, actors can employ both lethal and nonlethal measures. Lethal EW activities include the physi­cal destruction of high-priority targets supporting another actor’s decision making process—such as reconnaissance sensors, command posts, and communications systems. They also in­clude activities such as lethal air defense sup­pression measures. If available, precision muni­tions can degrade or eliminate high-technology C2 assets and associated links. Nonlethal EW means range from signals reconnaissance and electronic jamming to the deployment of protective countermeasures and deception jammers. Sophisticated camouflage, deception, decoy, or mockup systems can degrade the effects of enemy reconnaissance, intelligence, surveil­lance, and target acquisition (RISTA) systems. Also, an actor can employ low-cost GPS jam­mers to disrupt another actor’s precision muni­tions targeting, sensor-to-shooter links, and navigation. (FM 7-100.1)
Computer Warfare	Consists of attacks that focus specifically on computer systems, networks, and/or nodes. This includes a wide variety of activities, ranging from unauthorized access (hacking) of information systems for intelligence-collection purposes, to the insertion of malicious software  (viruses, worms, logic bombs, or Trojan horses) and deceptive information entry into computer systems. Such attacks concentrate on the denial of service and disruption or manipulation of the integrity of the information infrastructure. (FM 7-100.1)	Actors may attempt to accomplish these activities through the use of agents or third-party individuals with direct access to another actor’s information systems. They can also continually access and attack systems at great distances via communications links such as the Internet or various wireless devices. (FM 7-100.1)
Information Attack	An information attack (IA) focuses on the intentional disruption or distortion of information in a manner that supports a comprehensive INFOWAR campaign. Unlike computer warfare attacks that target the information systems, IAs target the information itself. (FM 7-100.1)	An IA may target an information system for sabotage (electronically or physically) or manipulate and exploit information. This may involve altering data, stealing data, or forcing a system to perform a function for which it was not intended. (FM 7-100.1)
Deception	Deception activities include measures designed to mislead adversaries by manipulation, distortion, or falsification of information. The aim of deception is to influence opponents’ situational understanding and lead them to act in a manner that is prejudicial to their own interests or favors the actor employing the deception. (FM 7-100.1)	Deception measures are a part of every military operation, and are also used to achieve political and economic goals. The international media may be a target for deceptive information at the operational level, being fed false stories and video that portrays tactical-level actions with the goal of influencing operational or even strategic decisions. (FM 7-100.1) Forms of deception that support IW range from physical decoys and electronic devices, to operational activities, to casualty “photo ops” staged for unsuspecting media personnel. Successful deception activities depend on the identification and exploitation of enemy information systems and networks, as well as other “conduits” for introducing deceptive information. (FM 7-100.1)
Physical Destruction	Physical destruction, as an element of INFOWAR, involves measures to destroy critical components of the enemy’s information infrastructure. (FM 7-100.1)	The OPFOR integrates all types of conventional and precision weapon systems to conduct the destructive fires, to include fixed- and rotary-wing aviation, cannon artillery, multiple rocket launchers, and surface-to-surface missiles. It can also utilize other means of destruction, such as explosives delivered by special-purpose forces (SPF), insurgents, terrorists, or even co- opted civilians. Physical destruction activities can be integrated with jamming to maximize their effects. (FM 7-100.1)
Protection and Security Measures	The purpose of protection and security measures in INFOWAR is to protect one’s own information infrastructure, maintain one’s own capabilities for effective C2, and deny protected information to other actors. (FM 7-100.1)	Protection and security measures conducted as part of INFOWAR include— Information collection, processing, and utilization. Reconnaissance and counterreconnaissance. Information and operations security. Camouflage, concealment, cover, and deception. Force protection. Secure use of information-collection and –processing systems. An actor’s capability against its main opponent can come from a high-tech asset or a low-tech approach. (FM 7-100.1)
Perception Management	Perception management involves measures aimed at creating a perception of truth that furthers an actor’s objective. It integrates several widely differing activities that use a combination of true, false, misleading, or manipulated information. (FM 7-100.1)	Enemy or foreign audiences, as well as the local population, may be targets of perception man­agement. Perception management can include misinformation, media manipulation, and psychological warfare. (FM 7-100.1) Psychological warfare (PSYWAR) is the capa­bility and activities designed to influence se­lected friendly, neutral, and/or hostile target audiences’ attitudes and behaviors in support of the actor. PSYWAR can target either specific decision making systems or the entire informa­tion system of the target audience, while in­fluencing key communicators and decision mak­ers. Such attacks target an enemy’s perceived centers of gravity. For example, prolonging an operation and using all forms of media to show the devastation of conflict can sway public opi­nion against the effort. (FM 7-100.1) Many actors skillfully employ media and other neutral actors, such as NGOs, to influence further public and private perceptions. Actors can exploit the international media’s willingness to report information without independent and timely confirmation. Individuals such as agents of influence, sympathizers, and antiwar prote­sters are also employed advantageously to influence the enemy’s media, politicians, and citizenry. (FM 7-100.1)
Subvariable Links:  Military: Military Functions; Information: Information Management; Infrastructure: Utility Level, Utilities Present.

Table 3-33. Information: intelligence

Definition: The product resulting from the collection, processing, integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of available information concerning foreign nations, hostile or potentially hostile forces or elements, or areas of actual or poten­tial operations.The term is also applied to the activity which results in the product and to the organizations engaged in such activity. (JP 2-0)
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT)	Information of potential intelligence value that is available to the general public. (JP 2-0) OSINT is derived from the systematic collection, processing, and analysis of publicly available, rele­vant information in response to intelligence requirements. (FM 2-0)	OSINT is produced from publicly available information that is collected, exploited, and disseminated in a timely manner to an appro­priate audience for the purpose of addressing a specific intelligence requirement. (National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2006)
Human        Intelligence (HUMINT)	A category of intelligence derived from information collected and provided by human sources. (JP 2-0) HUMINT is the collection or foreign information— by a trained HUMINT collector—from people and multimedia to identify elements, intentions, composition, strength, dispositions, tactics, equipment, personnel, and capabilities. It uses human sources as a tool and a variety of collection methods, both passively and actively, to collect information. (FM 2-0)	Special-purpose forces (SPF) are a major source of  human intelligence (HUMINT). (FM 7-100.1)
Signals  Intelligence (SIGINT)	1.  A category of intelligence comprising either individually or in combination all communications intelligence, electronic intelligence, and foreign instrumentation signals intelligence, however transmitted. 2. Intelligence derived from communications, electronic, and foreign instrumentation signals. (JP 1-02) SIGINT is intelligence produced by exploiting for­eign communication systems and noncommunica­tions emitters. (JP 2-0) The SIGINT discipline is comprised of communica­tions intelligence (COMINT), electronic intelligence (ELINT), and foreign instrumentation signals intel­ligence (FISINT). (FM 2-0)	In OPFOR terminology, signals reconnaissance is an integral part of information war­fare. The overall scope of signals reconnais­sance includes the interception, analysis, and exploitation of electromagnetic (radio and radar) emissions, coupled with measures to disrupt or destroy the enemy’s radio and ra­dar assets. (FM 7-100.1)
Imagery Intelligence(IMINT)	The technical, geographic, and intelligence information derived through the interpretation or analy­sis of imagery and collateral materials. (JP 2-03)	IMINT is intelligence derived from the exploi­tation of imagery collected by visual photo­graphy, infrared, lasers, multi-spectral sen­sors, and radar. These sensors produce im­ages of objects optically, electronically, or digitally on film, electronic display devices, or other media. (FM 2-0)
Subvariable Links:   Military: Military Functions; Social: Education Level; Information: Information Warfare, Information Management.

Table 3-34. Information: information management

Definition: Information Management is the science of using procedures and information systems to collect, process, store, display, disseminate, and protect knowledge products, data, and information. (FM 3-0). It employs both staff management and automatic processes to focus a vast array of information and make relevant information available to the right person at the right time. Effective information management—synchronized with reconnaissance, intelligence, surveillance, and target acquisition (RISTA) operations—enables commanders to gain and maintain information superiority. The level of Information management is defined by management, systems, and security. The three are intertwined and are therefore addressed as a composite capability in this subvariable. Information Systems: The equipment and facilities that collect, process, store, display and disseminate information. This includes computers—hardware and software—and communications, as well as policies and procedures for their use. (FM 3-0) Information systems and information management appear similar because they are intertwined. The sophistication of the information systems largely determines the capability of military command and control (C2) and civil interconnectivity. Information Security: The protection of information and information systems against unauthorized access or modification of information, whether in storage, processing, or transit, and against denial of services to authorized users. (JP 3-13) Informa­tion security includes those measures necessary to detect, document, and counter such threats. Information security is com­ posed of computer security and communications security.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Rudimentary	Individuals or small groups supported by state- sponsored institutions (military or civilian) and non-state international groups. Military uses computers, analog, Internet, cell phones, radios, satellite phones, etc. Limited-to-no military au­tomated information management systems. Commercial, business, and finance stand­ alone systems. Communications systems sepa­rate but basic. 0 to 24% encrypted (secure).	Relevant information is all information of importance to commanders and staffs in the exercise of command and control. (FM 3-0) Information superiority is the operational advan­tage derived from the ability to collect, process, and disseminate an uninterrupted flow of infor­mation while exploiting or denying an adver­sary’s ability to do the same (JP 3-13).
Basic	Integrated digital information management sys­tems. Military: digitized: computerized reports, direct GPS and encryption  (selected),  direct sensor-to-shooter links, laser range-finders, Inter­ net, broadcast tactical warning systems. Com­mercial, business, communications and finance systems linked locally but not integrated. 25% to 50% encrypted (secure).	Allows commanders to take advantage of oppor­tunities, while denying adversary commanders the information needed to make timely and ac­ curate decisions or leading them to make deci­sions favorable to friendly forces.
Medium	Windows of information domination. Military: integrated battlefield management systems, integrated C2, navigation, fire control, RISTA, image, maps, video, encrypted to battalion level, with or without SATCOM, GPS to squad level. Some commercial, business, communications and finance systems integrated locally, others linked. Some linked internationally. 51% to 75% encrypted (secure).
Advanced	Advanced (state-of-the-art) information systems. Maintains information superiority. Creates condi­tions that allow commanders to shape the OE and enhance the effects of all elements of com­ bat power. Military: U.S. Joint Tactical Informa­tion Distribution System (JTIDS) and/or Blue (& Red) Force Tracker or foreign equivalent. Tech­nological advancements in automated informa­tion systems and communications allow com­manders to see the battlefield as actions unfold, near real-time, and to rapidly pass information across their AOs. Commercial, business, communications, and finance systems inte­grated locally and internationally. 76% to 90% encrypted (secure).
Subvariable Links: Military: Military Functions; Social: Education Level; Information: Information Warfare; Infrastructure: Utility Level.

Infrastructure Variable

The Infrastructure variable is composed of the basic facilities, services, and installations needed for the functioning of a community or society. The degradation or destruction of infrastructure will impact the entire OE, especially the Political, Military, Economic, Social, and Information variables. This variable also reflects the infrastructure sophistication of an OE. The specific infrastructure subvariables and their settings represent replicable conditions that may be present within an OE and are depicted in table 3-35. Their associated definitions, considerations, additional notes, and external links are listed separately in tables 3- 36 through 3-41.

Table 3-35. Infrastructure variable and subvariable settings

Variable	Infrastructure
Subvariable	Construc­tion Pattern	Urban Zones	Urbanized Building Density	Utilities Present	Utility Level	Transportation Architecture
Subvariable Settings	Dense, Random	City Core	Low	Power	Non-Existent	Primitive
	Close Orderly Block	Core Periphery	Medium	Water	Degraded	Moderate
	Strip Area	High-Rise Residential	High	Sewage	Developed	Complex
	Shantytown	Low-Rise Residential		Services and Transportation
		Commercial Area
		Industrial Area
		Military Area

Table 3-36. Infrastructure: construction pattern

Definition: The physical layout of buildings and streets in an urban area (village, town, or city).
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Dense, Random Construction	Urban area consisting of closely packed build­ings with little set-back from narrow winding streets that often radiate in an irregular manner from a single area, such as a religious building, dock area, or government center.	This construction pattern is typical in old walled towns and cities and old port towns and cities. Frequently found in city core and core periphery zones. May also be found in towns and villages.
Close Orderly Block Construction	Urban area consisting of residential and commercial type buildings forming distinct rectangular blocks. Buildings frequently share a continuous front along the street for as much as a city block, and inner-block courtyards are common. Streets are generally wider and form rectangular patterns.	This construction pattern is often typical of a designed or planned urban area. Frequently found in city core and core periphery zones.
Strip Area	A strip area is a small urban area predominately built along a transportation route, such as a road or river. Usually assumes a long, thin, linear pattern.	The strip area may stand alone or be linked be­tween nearby larger urban areas. If visibility is good and enough effective fields of fire are available, a unit acting as a security force need occupy only a few strong positions spread out within the strip. This will deceive the enemy, when engaged at long ranges, into thinking the strip is an extensive defensive line. Strip areas often afford covered avenues of withdrawal to the flanks once the attacking force is deployed and before the security force becomes decisively engaged.
Shantytown	Random arrangement of poorly constructed structures made of any scrap material available, irregularly laid out, and connected by walking paths that may not accommodate vehicular traffic.	Shantytowns are typically areas composed of low income or unemployed elements of the population who live in poorly constructed buildings or older buildings in various states of decay. Most towns and villages in third world countries have shantytowns that often can be found in multiple zones throughout the area. Structures within shantytowns are constructed from readily available materials, such as card­ board, tin, adobe, or concrete block. These less structurally sound buildings have no common floor pattern and are more likely to have only one room. Random arrangement of structures, absence of formal street naming, and often the lack of easily identifiable buildings and terrain create challenges. The temporary nature of the structures can mean that mobility can be either more or less restricted than other sections of an urban area. Mobility becomes more restrictive as the narrow paths often do not accommodate vehicles. Weak structures afford little protection and increase the risk of fratricide, civilian casualties, and large, rapidly spreading fires.
Subvariable Links: Military: Military Forces; Economics: Economic Diversity; Infrastructure: Urban Zones, Urbanized Build­ing Density.

Table 3-37. Infrastructure: urban zones

Definition: Distinct areas or zones within a city that is geographically identifiable. These zones are normally categorized by the predominate activity within their boundaries.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
City Core	The city core is the heart of the urban area—the downtown or central business district. It is relatively small and compact but contains a large percentage of the urban area’s shops, offices, and public institutions. It normally contains the highest density of multistory buildings and subterranean areas. Older city cores have narrow streets (7 to 15 m wide), while newer, planned developments have wider streets (at least 15 to 25 m wide). In most cities, the core has under­ gone more recent development than the core periphery. As a result, the two regions are often quite different. Typical city cores are made up of buildings that vary greatly in height.	Buildings 15-20 stories and higher (possibly up to 50 stories above ground and 4 stories below ground). Older city cores have few open areas and buildings are closer to streets, but modern urban planning allows for more open spaces. Large workforce; few residents. Dense random and close orderly block are two common construction patterns that can be found within the city core.
Core Periphery	The core periphery is located at the outer edges of the city core. The core periphery consists of streets 12 to 20 m wide with continuous fronts of brick or concrete buildings. The building heights are fairly uniform—2 or 3 stories in small towns, five to ten stories in large cities.	Buildings 2-10 stories. Few open areas (but more than in city core). Large workforce; aver­ age residents. Dense random and close orderly block are two common construction patterns that can be found within core periphery zones.
High-Rise Residential Area	Typical of modern construction in larger cities and towns, this area consists of multistoried apartments. Wide streets are laid out in rectangular patterns. Rarely are there unbroken rows of houses facing the street in this type area.	Buildings 15-20 stories and higher. Limited open areas (such as parking lots, recreation areas, parks, and individual one-story buildings). Aver­age workforce; average residents. These areas are often contiguous to industrial or transporta­tion areas or interspersed with close orderly block areas.
Low-Rise Residential Area	Dispersed row houses or single-family dwellings with yards, gardens, trees, and fences. Street patterns are normally rectangular or curving. However, buildings are normally set back from the road.	Buildings 1-3 stories. Many open areas. Small workforce; many residents. Residential zones are typically subdivided by income or culturally important factors, such as ethnicity or religion. This type area is normally contiguous to close orderly block areas in Europe. In some areas of the world, residential areas may be located in high walled compounds with houses built right up to the edge of the street.
Commercial Area	Rows of stores, shops, and restaurants built along both sides of major streets that run through and between urban areas. Streets are usually 25 m wide or more. The buildings un­iformly stand 2 to 3 stories tall (about one story taller than the dwellings on the streets behind them).	Buildings 2-3 stories. Subcategories are com­mercial ribbon areas built along major streets in an urban area or strip areas built along the roads that connect one urban area to another.
Industrial Area	Industrial areas are generally located on or along major rail and highway routes in urban complexes. Older complexes may be located within dense, random construction or close orderly block areas. New construction normally consists of low, flat-roofed factory and ware­ house buildings (1 to 3 stories) in dispersed, irregular patterns with large parking areas and work yards.	Buildings 1-5 stories. Many open areas. Large workforce; few residents. Industrial areas often develop on the outskirts of urban areas, where commercial transportation is easiest (along airfields and major sea, river, rail, and highway routes). High-rise areas providing worker hous­ing are normally located adjacent to these areas throughout Asia. Identification of transportation facilities within these areas is critical because these facilities, especially rail facilities, pose significant obstacles to military movement. Toxic industrial chemicals and other hazardous mate­rials may be transported or stored throughout the industrial area.
Military Area (Permanent or Fixed Fortifications)	These include any of several different types and may be actual fortifications. These permanent fortifications can be made of earth, wood, rock, brick, concrete, steel-reinforced concrete, or any combination of the above. Some of the latest variants are built underground and employ heavy tank or warship armor, major caliber and other weapons, internal communica­tions, service facilities, and CBRN overpressure systems.	Defense oriented; planned positions. Usually regular armed forces. May be found in or near urban areas (which may have grown up around the military installation that provided protection for inhabitants).
Subvariable Links: Military: Military Forces; Economics: Economic Diversity; Social: Volatility; Infrastructure: Construction Pattern.

Table 3-38. Infrastructure: urbanized building density

Definition: Describes the average building density within a town.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Low	Less than 15 buildings per town with no 2-story structures. Single economic industry structures present in each town.
Medium	15 to 25 buildings per town with at least 3 multi­ story structures. One government center (5-building cluster) and site of significance (3-building cluster) per province. Two economic industry structures present per town.
High	25 or more buildings per town with at least 5 multi-story structures clustered together or separated by a one-story building or open area. One government center (5-building cluster) and one site of significance (a 3-building cluster) per district. Three economic industry structures and constructions present in the OE.
Subvariable Links: Military: Military Forces; Infrastructure: All; Physical Environment: Terrain Complexity, Obstacles.

Table 3-39. Infrastructure: utilities present

Definition: Describes the average building density within a town.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Low	Less than 15 buildings per town with no 2-story structures. Single economic industry structures present in each town.
Medium	15 to 25 buildings per town with at least 3 multi­ story structures. One government center (5-building cluster) and site of significance (3-building cluster) per province. Two economic industry structures present per town.
High	25 or more buildings per town with at least 5 multi-story structures clustered together or separated by a one-story building or open area. One government center (5-building cluster) and one site of significance (a 3-building cluster) per district. Three economic industry structures and constructions present in the OE.
Subvariable Links: Military: Military Forces; Infrastructure: All; Physical Environment: Terrain Complexity, Obstacles.

Table 3-40. Infrastructure: utility level

Definition: Describes the approximate percentage of utilities available to a town. Each utility present in the OE has its own respective service level.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Non-Existent	25% present and operational.	25% of all distribution nodes or required infrastructure and role-player elements/material are present or operational, with physical distribution and services present to at least 1/4 of the structures in each “switched on” area.
Degraded	50% present and operational.	50% of all distribution nodes or required infra­structure and role-player elements/material are present or operational, with physical distribution and services present to at least 1/3 of the struc­tures in each “switched on” area.
Developed	75% present and operational.	75% of all distribution nodes or required infra­structure and role-player elements/material are present or operational, with physical distribution and services present to at least half of the struc­ tures in each “switched on” area.
Subvariable Links: Political: Government Effectiveness; Economic: Economic Diversity; Social: Social Volatility; Infrastruc­ture: All.

Table 3-41. Infrastructure: transportation architecture

Definition: Details the existing public road and transportation network present in an OE. Describes the type of roads present and the coverage of the road network to any built-up areas. Includes airports, ports, rail, and surface road networks.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Primitive	Single track or improved two-lane hard-surface road networks, extending to all built-up areas. Single-line railway, no functioning airports, limited or no riverine transportation networks.	Definitions also set the material and scena­rio scripting requirements associated with each replicated service.
Moderate	Improved multi-lane hard-surface road networks, extending to all built-up areas with secondary, two- lane hard-surface roads paralleling primary roads. Two to three 2-line railways, connecting at least 50% of the OE infrastructure. One functioning air­port and, if present, moderate riverine transportation networks.
Complex	Multi-lane hard-surface highway networks, extend­ing to all built-up areas with secondary, multi-lane hard-surface roads paralleling primary roads. Three to four 2-line railways, connecting at least 75% of the OE infrastructure. Two to three large, function­ing airports (jet capable) and, if present, extensive riverine transportation networks.
Subvariable Links: Political: Government Effectiveness; Military: Military Forces; Economic: Economic Diversity; Infrastruc­ ture: All.

Physical Environment Variable

The Physical Environment variable includes the geography and man-made structures as well as the climate and weather in the AO. Depending on the type of exercise, these conditions may be real, notional, or a combination. The span of subvariables defining the Physical Environment includes “terrain,” “natural hazards,” “climate,” and “weather,” depicted in table 3-42. The detail and complexity of the “terrain” and “weather” subvariables necessitate breaking down some of their components beyond the subvariable level. This lower level classification is called sub-subvariable. Some of the components of “terrain” are actually sub-subvariables, and all components of the “weather” subvariable require this additional breakdown. (See table 3-43.)

Table 3-42. Physical Environment variable and subvariable settings

Variable	Physical Environment
Subvariable	Terrain	Natural Hazards	Climate	Weather
Subvariable Settings	Observation and Fields of Fire	Volcanoes	Tropical	Precipitation
	Avenues of Approach	Drought	Arid	High Temperature— Heat Index
	Key Terrain	Monsoon	Mediterranean	Low Temperature— Wind Chill Index
	Obstacles	Earthquake	Oceanic	Wind
	Cover and Concealment	Flooding	Continental	Visibility
Sub- Subvariable	Landforms	Avalanche	Subarctic	Cloud Cover
	Vegetation	Cyclone		Relative Humidity
	Terrain Complexity	Other (Diseases)		See table 3-43 for an overview of sub- subvariable settings.
	Mobility Classification

Table 3-43. Physical Environment variable, subvariables and sub-subvariable settings

Variable	Physical Environment
Subvariable	Terrain
Sub- Subvariable	Landforms	Vegetation	Terrain Complexity	Mobility  Clas­ sification
Sub- Subvariable Settings	Sloped	Desert/Scrub	Urban Area- Plus Other	Unrestricted Terrain
	Coastal	Grassland	Urban Area Alone	Restricted Terrain
	Fluvial	Woodland	Two or More Types of Restrictive Terrain	Severely Restricted Terrain
	Erosion	Mixed	Single Type of Restrictive Terrain
	Mountain/Glacial		Unrestricted
	Mixed
Subvariable	Weather
Sub- Subvariable	Precipitation	High Temperature—Heat Index	Low Temperature— Wind Chill Index	Wind	Visibility		Cloud Cover	Relative Humidity
Sub- Subvariables Settings	Very Light	75-85°F	1 mph at 50°F to 40 mph at 20°F	Calm	Beginning Morning Nautical Twilight		Clear	WBGT Index reaches 78°F
	Light	85-105°F	1 mph at -30°F to 40 mph at -10°F	Moderate Breeze	Beginning Morning Civil Twilight		Scattered	WBGT Index reaches 85°F
	Moderate	95-130°F	10 mph at -50°F to 40 mph at -60°F	Strong Breeze	End of Evening Civil Twilight		Broken	WBGT Index reaches 88°F
	Heavy	95-130°F		Moderate Gale	End of Evening Nautical Twilight		Overcast	WBGT Index reaches 90°F
		Over 130°F		Strong Gale
				Storm

The next level of discussion is to graphically portray the associated definitions of each Physical Environment subvariable and sub-subvariable as well as their settings, setting definitions, considerations and additional notes and external links with other subvariables. (See tables 3-44 through 3-58.) This format is designed to give the exercise planner the necessary details needed for constructing the desired OE. The order of discussion will be “terrain,” “natural hazards,” “climate,” and “weather.”

Terrain

Definitions of “terrain” and the associated subvariable setting definitions are listed in table 3-44. In this case, the subvariable settings are actually a menu of certain aspects of terrain that need to be taken into consideration. The last four subvariable settings are actually sub-subvariables that have their own definitions and settings (see tables 3-45 through 3-48). Limitations inherent with specific types of terrain are enforced by observer-controllers in live exercises or by computer-enforced rules in simulated exercises.

Table 3-44. Physical environment: terrain

Definition: Terrain is a portion of the earth’s surface that includes natural and manmade features (TC 2-33.4).
Subvariable Setting	Setting or Sub-Subvariable Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Observation and Fields of Fire	Observation is the condition of weather and terrain that permits a force to see personnel, systems, and key aspects of the environment (FM 2-01.3). Field of fire is the area which a weapon or a group of weapons may cover effectively with fire from a given position. (JP 1-02 and FM 1-02)	The type of units (friendly and enemy) which are on the ground, how they look from each other’s perspective on the battlefield, and lines of sight (LOS) from their positions to the target (TC 2­ 33.4). Intervisibility is the condition of being able to see one point from the other. (FM 2-01.3)
Avenues of Approach	An avenue of approach (AA) is an air or ground route of an attacking force of a given size lead­ing to its objective or to key terrain in its path. (JP 1-02)	Mobility corridors (MCs) are subsets of AAs. To evaluate and develop AAs, the results developed during obstacle evaluation are used to identify and categorize MCs and to group MCs into AAs. (FM 2-01.3). [See Physical Environment: Terrain: Mobility Classification.] Mobility corridors are areas where a force will be canalized due to terrain restrictions; they allow military forces to capitalize on the principles of mass and speed and are therefore relatively free of obstacles. (JP 2-01.3)
Key Terrain	Key terrain is any locality or area whose seizure, retention, or control affords a marked advantage to either combatant. (JP 2-01.3, FM 2-01.3, and TC 2-33.4)	Any terrain that increases a unit’s ability to apply combat power, or decreases the opponent’s ability to apply theirs, is considered key terrain. (TC 2-33.4)
Obstacles	An obstacle is any obstruction designed or employed to disrupt, fix, turn, or block the movement of an opposing force [enemy], and to impose additional losses in personnel, time, and equipment on the opposing force [enemy]; obstacles can be natural, manmade, or a combination of both. (JP 3-15 and FM 2-01.3)	Obstacles, whether natural or manmade, are those elements that impact a force’s ability to maneuver and move rapidly through an area (TC 2-33.4). Some examples of obstacles to ground mobility are buildings, mountains, steep slopes, dense forests, rivers, lakes, urban areas, mine- fields, trenches, certain religious and cultural sites, and wire obstacles (concertina wire, barb wire). (FM 2-01.3) [See Physical Environment: Terrain: Mobility Classification.]
Cover and Concealment	Cover is physical protection from bullets, fragments of exploding rounds, flame, nuclear effects, and biological and chemical agents (FM 2-01.3). Concealment is protection from observation or surveillance. (JP 1-02)	Cover does not necessarily provide concealment; concealment does not necessarily provide cover. (FM 2-01.3)
Landforms (Sub-Subvariable)	A feature of the earth’s surface attributable to natural causes.	Types of terrain predominating the AO (describes more than 60% of the terrain present in the AO).
Vegetation (Sub-Subvariable)	Plant life or total plant cover (as of an area).	Describes the predominant vegetation found in an AO.
Terrain Complexity (Sub-Subvariable)	Describes the degree to which the terrain im­poses significant limitations on observation, maneuver, fires, and intelligence collection.	Complex terrain is a topographical area consisting of an urban center larger than a village and/or of two or more types of restrictive terrain or environmental conditions occupying the same space. (Restrictive terrain or environmental conditions include but are not limited to slope, high altitude, forestation, severe weather, and urbanization.) (FM 7-100.1 and ATTP 3-34.80)
Mobility Classification (Sub-Subvariable)	Describes the degree to which the terrain al­ lows, slows, or hinders movement from place to place in combat formations.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Weather, Climate; Infrastructure: Construction Pattern, Urban Zones, Urbanized Building Density.

The definitions and settings of the “terrain” sub-subvariables of landforms, vegetation, terrain complexity, and mobility classification are depicted in tables 3-45 through 3-48. These subsets define the physical features, circumstances and conditions surrounding and potentially influencing the execution of operations in an AO.

Table 3-45. Terrain: landforms

Definition: A feature of the earth’s surface attributable to natural causes. Landforms do not include man-made features, such as canals, ports, and many harbors. Types of terrain predominating the AO (describes more than 60% of the terrain present in the AO).
Sub-Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Sloped	Sloping landforms consisting of, but not limited to the following types: cliffs, dells, escarpments, glens, gullies, hills, mountains, plains & plateaus, ridges, valleys, and water­ sheds.	Limitations inherent with specific types of terrain are enforced by observer-controller rules (live), or computer-enforced simulation rules.
Coastal	Coastal landforms consisting of, but not limited to the following types: bays, beaches, cuspate forelands, capes, coves, delta, fjords, lagoons, sounds, spits, or tombolos.
Fluvial	Riverine or water type landforms consisting of, but not limited to the following types: ar­royos, basins, bars, bayous, lakes, levees, marshes, rivers and streams, swamps, water­falls, watersheds, or combinations of those mentioned.
Erosion	Erosion type landforms consisting of, but not limited to the following types: canyons, caves, and disposition or eolian landforms.
Mountain/Glacial	Mountain landforms consisting of, but not limited to the following types: mountain ranges, crevasses, U-shaped valleys, glaci­ers, hanging valleys, kale deltas, outwash fans, and other types of valley formations.
Mixed	Two or more of the above categories of land­ forms comprising over 80% of the available terrain in an AO.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment Climate, Terrain (Mobility Classification, Terrain Complexity).

Table 3-46. Terrain: vegetation

Definition: Plant life or total plant cover (as of an area). Describes the predominant vegetation found in an AO.
Sub-Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Desert/ Scrub	A variety of trees that have had their growth stunted by soil or climatic conditions. Shrubs comprise the undergrowth in open forests, but in arid and semiarid areas they are the dominant vegetation. Shrubs normally offer no serious ob­stacle to movement and provide good conceal­ment from ground observation; however, they may restrict fields of fire.	Settings used primarily a virtual or con­structive training environment. Can be replicated live in select instances by applying observer-controller-enforced rules to govern behavior in the type of area specified.
Grassland (Tall/Short)	Grasslands from 0.5 to 2 m in height. Grassland more than 1 m high is considered tall. Very tall grass may provide concealment for foot troops. Foot movement in savannah grasslands is slow and tiring; vehicular movement is easy; and observation from the air is easy. Improved solid trafficability during seasonal wet periods.
Woodlands	Broadleaf, deciduous, or coniferous forests capa­ble of slowing dismounted troops and military vehicles, channelizing movement and causing limited observation and fields of fire. The type of woodland is determined by the dominant tree type (more than 60% of either deciduous or coniferous types). Forests containing less than 60% mix of either type are considered mixed.
Mixed	Two or more of the above types.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Climate, Terrain (Mobility Classification, Terrain Complexity).

Table 3-47. Terrain: terrain complexity

Definition: Describes the degree to which the terrain imposes significant limitations on observation, maneuver, fires, and intelligence collection. Complex terrain is a topographical area consisting of an urban center larger than a village and/or of two or more types of restrictive terrain or environmental conditions occupying the same space. (Restrictive terrain or environmental conditions include but are not limited to slope, high altitude, forestation, severe weather, and urbanization.) (FM 7-100.1 and ATTP 3-34.80)
Sub-Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Urban Area plus Other Types	An urban area larger than a village occurs in conjunction with of other types of restrictive terrain and/or environmental conditions.	An urban area generally consists of a large central core with a population density of at least 1,000 inhabitants per square mile and adjacent densely settled areas with a popula­tion density of at least 500 inhabitants per square mile that together have a total popula­tion of at least 2,500. (A village is a small community incorporated as a municipality in a rural area, with a population of 100 to 2,500.)
Urban Area Alone	An urban area larger than a village, in and of itself, constitutes complex terrain—without the presence of other types of restrictive terrain and/or environmental conditions
Two or More Types of Restrictive Terrain and/or Environmental Conditions	A combination of two or more types of restric­tive terrain (other than urban) and/or envi­ronmental conditions.	Restrictive terrain or environmental condi­tions (other than urbanization) include but are not limited to slope, high altitude, forestation, and severe weather.
Single Type of Restrictive Terrain or Environmental Condition	A single type of restrictive terrain (other than urban) or environmental condition.
Unrestricted	No urban area or other type  of restrictive terrain or environmental condition is present.	Self-explanatory.
Subvariable Links: Infrastructure: Urbanized Building Density; Physical Environment: Climate, Terrain (Landforms, Vegeta­ tion, Mobility Classification).

Table 3-48. Terrain: mobility classification

Definition: Describes the degree to which the terrain allows, slows, or hinders movement from place to place in combat formations.
Sub-Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Unrestricted Terrain	Terrain that is free of any restriction to move­ment. Nothing needs to be done to enhance mobility. Unrestricted terrain for armored or mechanized forces is typically flat to moderately sloping terrain with scattered or widely spaced obstacles such as trees or rocks. Unrestricted terrain allows wide maneuver by the forces under consideration and unlimited tra­vel supported by well-developed road net­ works.	The settings for this sub-subvariable and their definitions come from FM 2-01.3.
Restricted Terrain	Terrain that hinders movement to some de­gree. Little effort is needed to enhance mobili­ty, but units may have difficulty maintaining preferred speeds, moving in combat forma­tions, or transitioning from one formation to another. Restricted terrain slows movement by requiring zigzagging or frequent detours. Re­stricted terrain for armored or mechanized forces typically consists of moderate-to-steep slopes or moderate-to-densely spaced ob­stacles such as trees, rocks, or buildings. Swamps or rugged terrain are examples of restricted terrain for dismounted infantry forces. Logistical or sustainment area move­ment may be supported by poorly developed road systems.
Severely Restricted Terrain	Terrain that severely hinders or slows movement in combat formations unless some effort is made to enhance mobility. This could take the form of committing engineer assets to improving mobility or of deviating from doctrin­al tactics, such as moving in columns instead of line formations or at speeds much lower than those preferred. Severely restricted ter­rain for armored and mechanized forces is typically characterized by steep slopes and large or densely spaced obstacles with few or no supporting roads.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Terrain (Landforms), Weather (Precipitation), Climate.

Natural Hazards

The effects of the “natural hazards” subvariable may involve Army units providing various types of support when conducting humanitarian relief, civil order, or other similar missions. Training for these events can be replicated in simulated settings or by the use of observer-controller enforced rules to govern transit and survivability of such events in a live setting. Definitions of “natural hazards” and the associated subvariable and subvariable setting definitions are listed in table 3-49.

Table 3-49. Physical environment: natural hazards

Definition: Describes the type of natural disasters or hazards that may be encountered when conducting stability or civil support operations.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Volcanic Eruption	Self-explanatory. Characterized by moderate to faWeather flows and possible explosive eruptions of rock and hot ash (similar to the Mt St Helens eruptions and after effects).	Can be replicated in live, virtual, or con­structive training environment by the adoption simulated of chemical, nuclear attack conditions (virtual or constructive), or the use of observer-controller-enforced rules to govern transit and survivability of such events in a live training environment.
Drought	A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consis­tently below average precipitation.
Tornado	A tornado is a violent, dangerous, rotating column of air which is in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Tornadoes come in many sizes but are typically in the form of a visible conden­sation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust.
Monsoon	Monsoon rainfall is considered to be that which occurs in any region that receives the majority of its rain dur­ing a particular season.
Earthquake	Large-magnitude, long-duration, surface quakes re­sulting in severe infrastructure damage and urban destruction.
Flooding	Large-area flooding of 2 to 3 m of depth, disrupting all transportation, destroying infrastructure, and subsiding after a prolonged period. Often accompanied by local contagions and waterborne diseases.
Avalanche	Self-explanatory. Large-scale effect occurring primarily in a mountain or terraced valley.
Cyclone	A cyclone is a storm system characterized by a large low-pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds, heavy rain and tornados. De­pending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by many other names, such as hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical de­pression, and simply cyclone.
Other	Any natural, biological, short-term, short-duration, large-area affect, propagated by either weather or prevailing terrain conditions present in an OE. In­cludes diseases.
None	Self-explanatory.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Weather, Climate; Infrastructure: Construction Pattern, Urbanized Building Density.

Climate

Climate has profound effects military operations. Training units should be exposed to as many types of climate as possible, simulated or real, especially the type(s) prevalent in those areas they may likely be deployed. Table 3-50 on page 3-38 lists the various types of climates that exist. Understanding their effects on military equipment and soldiers is critical to any successful military operation.

Table 3-50. Physical environment: climate

Definition: Climate is the average course or condition of the weather at a place over a period of years as exhibited by tem­perature, wind velocity, and precipitation. The type of climate is determined by factors such as latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. Climate zones share similar climatic attributes, usually in particular latitudinal distances from the equator.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Tropical	A type of climate characterized by 12 months of mean temperatures above 18°C (64.4°F) and almost continuous rainfall throughout the year, usually convectional occurring predominantly in the afternoon.	In replicable environments, climate is primarily classified on the basis of temperature and precipitation. Climatic descriptions are used in scenarios to vary climatic conditions to better train units, exposing them to the variety of climatic conditions and their effects on operations. This subvariable is primarily used in a virtual or constructive environment. Some climatic conditions can be replicated in a live environment using scenario-based rules and play box restrictions on training unit and OPFOR movement and actions.
Arid	Climate encountered in regions too dry to support a forest, but not dry enough to be a desert. The soil is considered too moist to be a desert, but too dry to support normal forest life. Characte­rized by hot summers and cold winters, with 10­ 20 inches of rain or snowfall per year.
Mediterranean	A climate that resembles those of the lands bor­dering the Mediterranean Sea. These climates generally occur on the western coasts of conti­nental landmasses, roughly between the latitudes of 30° and 45° north and south of the equator. Areas with this climate receive almost all of their yearly rainfall during the winter season, and may go anywhere from 2-5 months during the summer without having any significant precipitation.
Oceanic	Oceanic climates are characterized by a narrow­er annual range of temperatures than are en­countered in other places at a comparable lati­tude, and differ from Mediterranean climates in that significant amounts of precipitation are re­ceived in summer.
Continental	Characterized by winter temperatures cold enough to support a fixed period of stable snow cover each year, and relatively low precipitation occurring mostly in summer, although east coast areas (chiefly in North America) may show an even distribution of precipitation. They have ei­ther forest or tall-grass prairie as natural ground covers and include some of the most productive farmlands in the world. All such climates have at least 3 months of temperatures in excess of 10°C (50°F) and winters with at least one month below 0°C (32°F).
Subarctic	Characterized by long, usually very cold winters and brief, warm summers. It is found on large landmasses in the Northern Hemisphere, away from the moderating effects of an ocean, general­ly at latitudes from 50°N to 70°N (immediately south of the true arctic). Temperatures can drop to -40°C (also -40°F) in winter and may exceed 30°C (86°F) in summer. However, the summers are short, no more than 3 months of the year (but at least 1 month) and must have a 24-hour aver­age temperature of at least 10°C (50°F) to fall in this category.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Weather, Natural Hazards.

Weather

Definitions of “weather” and the associated sub-subvariables are listed in table 3-51. Weather should not be confused with climate. Weather refers to the activity or atmospheric condition at a given time or over shorter periods up to approximately two weeks, while climate refers to the average course or condition of these same elements over a period of years.

Table 3-51. Physical environment: weather

Definition: Weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given atmosphere at a given time. Weather phenomena lie in the hydrosphere and troposphere.
Sub-Subvariable	Sub-Subvariable Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Precipitation	Any visible moisture that falls from the at­mosphere, such as rain, sleet, snow, hail, drizzle or a combination of these.	Precipitation may be used by exercise control (EXCON) to manage various aspects of an exercise such as rate of advance and visibility.
High Temperature—Heat Index	The measurement of how hot or cold the air is. The heat index (HI) combines air temperature and relative humidity which helps deter­mine the human perceived equivalent temperature.	Knowing the HI in an AO is an important factor in deployments as well as and live and simulated training exercises.
Low Temperature—Wind Chill Index	The measurement of how cold the air is. The Wind-Chill Index combines air temperature and wind speed which helps determine the cooling effect of wind on bare flesh when first exposed.	Knowing the Wind Chill Index in an AO is an important factor in deployments as well as simulated exercises training exercises.
Wind	Air which is in horizontal or near horizontal motion.
Visibility	The mean distance at which the naked eye can see prominent objects through the at­mosphere.	Accurate timing based upon available light is critical in planning military operations. It is expressed in the number of degrees the cen­ter of the sun is below the horizon. Although technically not weather data, it is customarily considered together with weather factors because both affect visibility such as cloud cover. Light is also a critical factor in the employment of light sensitive equipment such as night vision and thermal devices.
Cloud Cover	The amount of clouds over or at a given loca­tion.	Cloud cover may be used by exercise control (EXCON) to manage various aspects of an exercise such as flight operations and visibility.
Relative Humidity	Humidity is the term used to describe the amount of water vapor in the air. The amount of water vapor the air actually contains com­pared with the maximum it can hold at a given temperature and pressure is termed the relative humidity of the air.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Climate, Natural Hazards.

The definitions and settings of the “weather” sub-subvariables of precipitation, high temperature- heat index, low temperature-wind chill index, wind, visibility, cloud cover and relative humidity are depicted in tables 3-52 through 3-58. These subsets define the atmospheric conditions surrounding and potentially influencing the execution of operations in an AO.

Table 3-52. Weather: precipitation

Definition: Any visible moisture that falls from the atmosphere, such as rain, sleet, snow, hail, drizzle or a combination of these. Precipitation occurs when the atmosphere, a large gaseous solution becomes saturated with water vapor and the water condenses and descends from the solution (that is, precipitates).
Sub-Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Very light	Scattered drops or flakes that do not completely wet an exposed surface regardless of duration.
Light	A trace of .10 inch of precipitation per hour with a maximum of .01 inch in 6 minutes.
Moderate	.11 to .30 inch per hour; between .01 and .03 inch in 6 minutes.
Heavy	More than .30 inch per hour; more than .03 inch in 6 minutes.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Climate, Natural Hazards.

Table 3-53. Weather: high temperature--heat index

Definition: The measurement of how hot or cold the air is. Temperature is measured with thermometers that may be cali­brated to a variety of temperature scales. Since the majority of military operations will most likely be in areas of moderate to extreme heat, a more useful measurement is heat index (HI). The HI combines air temperature and relative humidity which helps determine the human perceived equivalent temperature.
Sub-Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
75-85°F	Caution – Fatigue is possible with prolonged exposure and activity. Continuing activity could result in heat camps and nausea.	Understanding the average temperatures and HI in an AO is an important factor in deployments as well as and live-, virtual-, and gaming-based training exercises.
85-105°F	Extreme Caution – Use extreme caution in any prolonged physical activity. Continuing activity could result in heat exhaustion or heat stroke.
95-130°F	Danger – heat cramps and heat exhaustion are highly possible. Continued activity could result in heat stroke.
Over 130°F	Extreme Danger – heat stroke is imminent with any continuing activity.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Climate, Natural Hazards.

Table 3-54. Weather: low-temperature--wind chill index

Definition: The measurement of how cold the air is. Temperature is measured with thermometers that may be calibrated to a variety of temperature scales. Some military operations will include areas of moderate to extreme cold, for which a more useful measurement is Wind-Chill Index. Wind-Chill Index combines air temperature and wind speed which helps determine the cooling effect of wind on bare flesh when first exposed.
Sub-Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
From wind speed of 1 mph at 50°F to 40 mph at 20°F	Minimal Danger – Exposed flesh may freeze within 60 minutes. However, this range is also very dangerous because it gives a false sense of security.	The cooling effect is the same whether the human body is moving through the air or the air is blowing past the body. The effect of wind will be less if a person has even slight protection for exposed parts, such as light gloves on hands, or parka hood shielding face. Wind speeds greater than 40 mph have little additional effect. Understanding the average temperatures and current Wind-Chill Index in an AO is an important factor in deployments as well as and live-, virtual-, and gaming-based training exercises.
From 1 mph at -30°F to 40 mph at -10°F	Increasing Danger – Danger from freezing of exposed flesh within 60 seconds.
From 10 mph at -50°F to 40 mph at -60°F	Great Danger – Danger from freezing of exposed flesh within 30 seconds.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Climate, Natural Hazards.

Table 3-55. Weather: wind

Definition: Air which is in horizontal or near horizontal motion. Vertical movements of air are known as air current and are caused by differences in density between two air masses. Wind direction is determined by the direction from which it is blow­ ing.
Sub-Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Calm	Less than 1 mph; smoke rises vertically.	Setting names, wind speeds and effects are all based on the Beaufort Scale. Wind effects such as speed and direction are critical in all military operations but especially in the use of chemical agents, concealment, observation, and smoke obscuration.
Moderate Breeze	13-18 mph; raises dust, loose paper, small branches are moved.
Strong Breeze	25-31 mph; large branches in motion; whis­tling heard in above-ground electrical wires, umbrellas used with difficulty.
Moderate Gale	32-38 mph; whole trees in motion; difficulty walking against the wind.
Strong Gale	47-54 mph; slight structural damage occurs (chimney and roofing damaged).
Storm	56-63  mph; unable to walk, widespread structural damage.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Climate, Natural Hazards.

Table 3-56. Weather: visibility

Definition: The mean distance at which the naked eye can see prominent objects through the atmosphere. (Accurate timing based upon available light is critical in planning military operations. It is expressed in the number of degrees the center of the sun is below the horizon. Although technically not weather data, it is customarily considered together with weather factors because both affect visibility such as cloud cover. Light is also a critical factor in the employment of light sensitive equipment such as night vision and thermal devices.)
Sub-Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Beginning of Morning Nautical Twilight (BMNT)	Before sunrise, when the sun is 12 degrees below the horizon. Illumination is poor, and only vague outlines are visible.	An important visibility consideration called thermal (IR) crossover occurs, depending on the cloud ceiling, soon after BMNT and EENT. Thermal crossover occurs when the temperature of a target is the same as the temperature of its back­ground. When this occurs, targets will appear invisible to IR sensors.
Beginning of Morning Civil Twilight (BMCT)	Before sunrise, when the sun is 6 degrees below the horizon. On a clear day, outdoor activity is visible.	Under ideal conditions, the period of time when there is adequate visibility for large-scale operations is between BMNT and EECT. Generally, visibility at BMNT is about 400 m, which is enough light for close coordination between personnel.
End of Evening Civil Twilight (EECT)	After sunset, when the sun is 6 degrees below the horizon. On a clear day, out­door activity is visible.	Halfway between EECT and EENT (or BMNT and BMCT), there is enough light for visual ground adjustment of close-in artillery fire and air strikes.
End of Evening Nautical Twilight (EENT)	After sunset, when the sun is 12 degrees below the horizon. Illumination is poor, and only vague outlines are visible.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Climate, Natural Hazards.

Table 3-57. Weather: cloud cover

Definition: The amount of clouds over or at a given location.
Sub-Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Clear	No clouds or less than 1/8 of the sky is covered.	Cloud conditions are expressed as cloud bases or ceiling in which the amount of cover is stated in eighths. Several layers of scat­tered clouds added together may result in a broken or overcast condition. Low clouds impact many battlefield operations, especially the use of smart weapons (TC 2-33.4).
Scattered	1/8 to 4/8 of the sky is covered, inclusive.
Broken	5/8 to 7/8 of the sky is covered, inclusive.
Overcast	8/8 (100%) of the sky is covered.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Climate, Natural Hazards.

Table 3-58. Weather: relative humidity

Definition: Humidity is the term used to describe the amount of water vapor in the air. The amount of water vapor the air actually contains compared with the maximum it can hold at a given temperature and pressure is termed the relative humidity of the air. Relative humidity is an important metric used in forecasting weather. Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipita­tion, dew, or fog. High humidity makes soldiers feel hotter outside in the summer because it reduces the effectiveness of sweating to cool the body by preventing the evaporation or perspiration from the skin. An accurate measurement of this ef­fect is called the Wet-Bulb-Glove-Temperature (WBGT) Index, which is calculated using a combination of temperature, humidity and wind. WBGT reports are obtained from supporting combat medical units.
Sub-Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
WBGT index reaches 78°F	Extremely intense physical exertion may precipitate heat exhaustion or heat stroke. Caution should be taken.	Add 10° to all measured WBGTs when Sol­diers are wearing body armor or CBRN war­ fare clothing.
WBGT index reaches 85°F	Strenuous exercise, such as marching in standard cadence should be stopped for unseasoned Soldiers during their first 3 weeks in the AO.
WBGT index reaches 88°F	Strenuous exercise should be stopped for all Soldiers with less than 12 weeks of training in hot weather.
WBGT index reaches 90°F	Physical  training and strenuous exercise should be stopped for all Soldiers.	This does not apply to critical operational commitments where the risk of heat casual­ties may be warranted. However, hydration and sun cover are extremely important.
Subvariable Links: Physical Environment: Climate.

Time Variable

The Time variable describes the timing and duration of activities, events, or conditions that occur, exist, or continue within an OE, as well as how the timing and duration are perceived by various actors in the OE. Various aspects of time and the perception of them can affect and influence military operations (friendly and enemy) within an OE. They can affect the reasons for conducting an operation, the amount of time available to complete a mission, the duration of an operation, and how commanders employ forces to achieve conditions of the desired end state. Different groups of people may perceive the concept of time in different ways. The perception and experience of time are among the most central aspects of how groups function and interact. In a military context, time orientation affects decision cycles, planning horizons, and tempo of operations.

The specific Time subvariables and their settings depicted in table 3-59 represent replicable conditions that may be present within an OE for a training exercise. Their associated definitions, considerations, additional notes, and external links are listed separately in tables 3-60 through 3-65.

Table 3-59. Time variable and subvariable settings

Variable				Time
Subvariable	Knowledge of the AO	Cultural Percep­ tion of Time	Key-Event Resolution	Information Offset	Tactical Exploitation of Time	Key Dates, Time Periods, or Events
Subvariable Settings	Entry	Not Time Sensitive	Low	Low	Low	Traditional   Wed­ding Season
	Established	Medium	Medium	Medium	Medium	Secular or Religious Holi­days
	Exit	High	High	High	High	Anniversary of Historical Incidents
						Elections
						Natural Disasters
						Agricultural Crop/Livestock Market Cycles

Table 3-60. Time: knowledge of the AO

Definition: Defines the amount of knowledge that the training unit would rightfully possess based on the amount of time the unit has spent in the AO prior to scenario STARTEX.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Entry	Training unit is initially beginning its tour of duty. The unit is not established and has limited knowledge of the AO.	The range of settings determines the amount of information offset that the training unit and OPFOR are entitled to prior to the exercise. Time is equal to both friendly and enemy. Any information offset (for the training unit) should also be matched by appropriate behaviors for the OPFOR. For example, if the training unit has 3 months to prepare the OPFOR has the same 3 months to enhance defenses and maneuver, as well as acquire additional resources, men, and equipment.
Established	Training unit is mid-way through its deployment. The unit is established and has a moderate knowledge of the AO.
Exit	Training unit is nearing the end of its deploy­ment in the AO. The unit is established and has detailed knowledge of the AO.
Subvariable Links: Information: Intelligence; Time: Key-Event Resolution, Information Offset.

Table 3-61. Time: cultural perception of time

Definition: The cultural perception of time is one of the most important aspects of how different people groups function and interact. Cultural awareness includes sensitivity to how a given culture in the AO perceives the concept of time. Cultural un­derstanding of time can be used as an operational planning factor and a tool to manipulate tactical and strategic advantages.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Not Time Sensitive	Enemy views a protracted conflict as an advan­tage. May view a long-term conflict as a key objective.	For CTC replication, role-players should reflect appropriate cultural perception of time. If differ­ent than the U.S. perception, it should be reflected in the scenario.
Medium	Enemy views a protracted conflict as a possible advantage. May show flexibility in their ability to change their view of timeliness based on how the conflict unfolds.
High	Enemy views a protracted conflict as a liability and not to their advantage. May view a timely resolution of the conflict as a key objective.
Subvariable Links: Social: Ethnic Diversity, Education Level; Time: Key Dates, Time Periods, or Events.

Table 3-62. Time: key-event resolution

Definition: The number of key events and related orders of effect designed into the scenario in order to accomplish unit training objectives. The setting may describe the entire scenario, including sub-events or may describe specific key events within the scenario.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Low	1-3 OE key events planned with sufficient planning conducted to execute effects in response to prob­able training unit actions. Key-events effects depth limited to 2nd-order effects. Setting used for a relatively inexperienced unit to emphasize specific training objectives.	Decision on which setting should be selected is based on the commander’s training as­sessment of the unit and key exercise deci­sions made in phase 1 of the exercise design sequence. (See chapter 2.)
Medium	4-5 OE key events planned with sufficient planning conducted to execute effects in response to prob­ able training unit actions. Key-event effects depth limited to 3rd-order effects. Setting used for a trained, moderately experienced unit.
High	10-12 OE key events planned with sufficient planning conducted to execute effects in response to probable training unit actions. Key-event effects depth expanded to capture 2nd-, 3rd-, and 4th­ order effects in response to training unit actions and counter-actions. Setting used only for a highly experienced, capable unit.
Sub variable Links: Time: Knowledge of the AO, Information Offset.

Table 3-63. Time: Information offset

Definition: Tips, informants, and serendipitous events or reports that presage OPFOR activities in a meaningful, predictive way.
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Low	10% of all OPFOR activities or key events are presaged by sufficient tips, hints, or indicators to enable successful training unit reaction or inter­ diction to the events.	This information is either provided to the training unit prior to STARTEX for planning purposes or is scripted into the scenario.
Medium	20% of all OPFOR activities or key events are presaged by sufficient tips, hints, or indicators to enable successful training unit reaction or inter­diction to the events.
High	30% of all OPFOR activities or key events are presaged by sufficient tips, hints, or indicators to enable successful training unit reaction or inter­diction to the events.
Subvariable Links: Time: Key-Event Resolution, Knowledge of the AO.

Table 3-64. Time: tactical exploitation of time

Definition: The ability of the enemy to use time for tactical advantage. Examples of events used to gain or manipulate time to the enemy’s advantage are— Delay (trade space for time). Could be as simple as delaying or destroying MEDEVAC or interrupting the information flow or decision cycle. Attack to delay is an accepted method as is swarming (mobs) by civilians to delay and disrupt. Deception (lead enemy in different direction or focus). Fix (forces, obstacles, mines, etc.). Block (forces, obstacles, mines, CBRN, etc.).
Subvariable Setting	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Low	Enemy can conduct limited operations designed to manipulate time against small-unit tactical forces. Generally, friendly forces fall prey to “basic” opportu­nistic traps. Enemy has limited knowledge of the OE.	Decision on which setting should be se­lected is based on the commander’s train­ing assessment of the unit and key exer­cise decisions made in phase 1 of the exercise design sequence. (See chapter 2.)
Medium	Enemy is adept at using time to advantage against regular forces and infantry. Enemy has a moderate knowledge of the OE and friendly TTP and locations.
High	Enemy is very adept at using time to advantage at all levels in all conditions. Enemy has a detailed know­ ledge of the OE and friendly TTP and locations.
Subvariable Links: Military: Military Forces; Information: Intelligence; Time: Knowledge of the AO; Information Offset.

Table 3-65. Time: key dates, time periods, events

Definition: Routine, cyclical, planned, unplanned key dates, time periods, or events that significantly affect organizations, people, and military operations. Templating of these events is vital to establish or maintain control and predict future events. Once key dates, time periods, or events are determined, it is important to template the events and to analyze them for their impact on current or future military operations.
Subvariable Setting (Examples)	Setting Definition	Considerations and Additional Notes
Traditional Wedding Season	Traditional times during the year when weddings occur.	Other considerations are how and where these events are celebrated. For example, in many Asian nations wedding parties light fireworks or fire weapons in the air in harmless celebration.
Secular or Religious Holidays	Self-explanatory.	An example of military consideration would be country X where Christmas is not celebrated by 95% of popula­tion. The 5% of Christians and Christian Churches may require additional security.
Anniversary of Historical Incidents	Special milestone to be celebrated which is not necessarily routine or a cyclical, routine event.	An example would be the 200th birthday of a significant political or religious leader, which may be controversial among certain ethnic groups within a population.
Elections	Political elections including local, re­gional, and levels. Includes primary and general elections as well as scheduled and special elections.	May be a very critical time for a country and its future security. May require high security, especially if the outcome is significant, the country has a track record of widespread voter fraud, or the election includes the participation of first-time voter minorities.
Natural Disasters	Disasters created by catastrophic weather or environmental events.	Natural disasters affect the attitudes and activities of government and civilian populations. These changes cause stress in the civilian population and its leaders. Addressing the problems posed by disasters requires considerable time and resources.
Agricultural Crop/Livestock Market Cycles	Seasonal periods when harvest or sig­nificant livestock sales occur.	During these periods, a significant increase in road traffic of slow-moving vehicles occurs. Impact can be significant on military major or secondary supply routes.
Subvariable Links: Social: Ethnic Diversity; Physical Environment: Natural Hazards; Time: Cultural Perception of Time.