Chapter 7: Functional Tactics

Insurgents and guerrillas, as part of the irregular OPFOR, may employ adaptive functional tactics. When planning a tactical action, an irregular OPFOR commander or leader determines what functions must be performed to accomplish the mission. Then he allocates functional responsibilities to his subordinates and synchronizes the effort.

Note. Since criminal elements do not normally have the ability to execute these functional tactics, the term irregular OPFOR in this chapter refers to insurgents and/or guerrillas.

Functional Organization of Forces and Elements

An irregular OPFOR commander or leader specifies the initial organization of forces or elements within his level of command, according to the specific functions he intends his various subordinates to perform. At brigade level (when that exists in guerrilla units), the subordinate units performing these functions are referred to as forces. At lower levels they are called elements.

Note. This functional organization provides a common language and a clear understanding of how the commander or leader intends his subordinates to fight functionally. Thus, subordinates that perform common tactical tasks such as disruption, fixing, assault, exploitation, security, deception, or main defense are logically designated as disruption, fixing, assault, exploitation, security, deception, or main defense forces or elements. Irregular OPFOR commanders and leaders prefer using the clearest and most descriptive term to avoid any confusion. When the irregular OPFOR operates in conjunction with an affiliated regular military force, there is the advantage that regular OPFOR commanders also use this common language.

The commander or leader organizes and designates various forces and elements according to their function in the planned offensive or defensive action. A number of different functions must be executed each time the irregular OPFOR attempts to accomplish a mission. The functions do not change, regardless of where the force or element might happen to be located. However, the function (and hence the functional designation) of a particular force or element may change during the course of a tactical action. The use of precise functional designations for every force or element involved in a particular tactical action allows for a clearer understanding by subordinates of the distinctive functions their commander or leader expects them to perform. It also allows each force or element to know exactly what all of the others are doing at any time. This knowledge facilitates the ability to make quick adjustments and to adapt very rapidly to shifting tactical situations. This practice also assists in a more comprehensive planning process by eliminating the likelihood of some confusion (especially on graphics) of who is responsible for what.

Note. A subordinate designated as a particular functional force or element may also be called upon to perform other, more specific functions. Therefore, the function of that force or element, or part(s) of it, may be more accurately described by a more specific functional designation. For example, a disruption force generally “disrupts,” but also may need to “fix” a part of the enemy forces. In that case, the entire disruption force could become the fixing force, or parts of that force could become fixing elements.

The various functions required to accomplish any given mission can be quite diverse. However, they can be broken down into two very broad categories: action and enabling.

Action Forces and Elements

One part of the organization conducting a particular offensive or defensive action is normally responsible for performing the primary function or task that accomplishes the overall mission goal or objective of that action. In most general terms, therefore, that part can be called the action force or action element. In most cases, however, the higher unit commander will give the action force or element a more specific designation that identifies the specific function or task it is intended to perform, which equates to achieving the objective of the higher command’s mission.

For example, if the objective of the action of a guerrilla company or a grouping of insurgent direct action cells is to conduct a raid, the element designated to complete that action may be called the raiding element. In a brigade-level offensive, a force that completes the primary offensive mission by exploiting a window of opportunity created by another force is called the exploitation force. In defensive actions, the grouping that performs the main defensive mission is called the main defense force or main defense element.

Enabling Forces and Elements

In relation to the action force or element, all other parts of the organization conducting an offensive or defensive action provide enabling functions of various kinds. In most general terms, therefore, each of these parts can be called an enabling force or enabling element. However, each subordinate force or element with an enabling function can be more clearly identified by the specific function or task it performs. For example, an element that clears obstacles to permit an action element to accomplish a battalion’s tactical task is a clearing element.

In most cases, irregular OPFOR tactical actions would involve one or more types of enabling forces or elements designated by their specific function. The most common types include—

Disruption force or element. Disrupts enemy preparations or actions; destroys or deceives enemy reconnaissance; begins reducing the effectiveness of key enemy elements.
Fixing force or element. Fixes the enemy by preventing a part of his force from moving from a specific location for a specific period of time, so it cannot interfere with the primary OPFOR action.
Security force or element. Provides security for other parts of a larger organization, protecting them from observation, destruction, or becoming fixed.
Deception force or element. Conducts a deceptive action (such as a demonstration or feint) that leads the enemy to act in ways prejudicial to enemy interests or favoring the success of an OPFOR action force or element.
Support force or element. Provides support by fire; other combat or combat service support; or command and control (C2) functions for other parts of a larger organization.
Reconnaissance force or element. Conducts specific reconnaissance task(s) tailored to the mission.

Note. In a defensive situation, there may be a particular unit or grouping that the irregular OPFOR commander or leader wants to be protected from enemy observation and fire, to ensure that it will still be available for further actions. This may be designated as the protected force or element.

Flexibility

The function of a particular force or element may change in the course of a tactical action. For example, a grouping originally designated as a reconnaissance element may locate an enemy unit that it has the combat power to engage. In that case, the element in question could become an assault element, ambush element, or raiding element.

Types of Offensive Action

Insurgents and guerrillas can employ some of the types of offensive action also used by smaller tactical units of the regular OPFOR. Such actions can include—

Ambush.
Assault.
Raid.
Reconnaissance attack (guerrillas only).

Insurgent cells typically do not have sufficient combat power to conduct a reconnaissance attack. (See TC 7-100.2 for basic discussion of these offensive actions, as they are also conducted by the regular OPFOR.)

Irregular OPFOR leaders and commanders select the offensive action best suited to accomplishing their mission. Insurgent cells and small guerrilla units typically execute one combat mission at a time. Therefore, it would be rare for such a cell or unit to employ more than one type of offensive action simultaneously. However, irregular OPFOR organizations are dynamic and adapt very quickly to the situation. An offensive action may have to make use of whatever cell(s) or unit(s) can take advantage of a window of opportunity.

Ambush

An ambush is a surprise attack from a concealed position against a moving or temporarily halted target. In an ambush, the actions of the enemy determine the time, and the irregular OPFOR leader decides on the location. Similar to purposes used by regular military OPFOR, the irregular OPFOR can conduct ambushes to—

Destroy or capture enemy elements, personnel, and/or designated very important persons.
Secure supplies.
Demoralize enemy military forces and officials of a governing authority.
Delay introduction of international and/or enemy coalition assistance to a governing authority.
Block enemy movements and/or logistics support.
Canalize or restrict enemy movement.

The irregular OPFOR can use an ambush as a primary psychological tool in its information warfare (INFOWAR) activities. The psychological effects of ambushes can be enhanced by—

Conducting recurring ambushes at known areas and/or points where enemy forces must travel.
Changing the tempo or the number of ambushes to appear unpredictable.
Attacking targets that were previously considered safe or had not been attacked.
Using weapons with range capabilities previously not used in an area of conflict.
Increasing weapons and/or demolitions effects against particular targets.

A common tactic is to conduct an ambush as a means to set up ambush(es) of enemy forces that respond to the original ambush. Multiple and nearly simultaneous ambushes can be conducted along likely avenues of approach to the area of the initial ambush. Ambushes may also target enemy medical treatment and evacuation assets, when irregular OPFOR commanders or leaders decide to not comply with international conventions and law of war norms that regular military forces use. The destruction of means to evacuate and treat wounded can instill a sense of tentativeness in enemy soldiers because they realize that, should they become wounded or injured, medical help may not be forthcoming.

Attacking known points of enemy weakness is a fundamental planning consideration for the irregular OPFOR. Correspondingly, the irregular OPFOR avoids enemy strength.

Surprise and overwhelming massed firepower at a specific place and time provides an expectation of tactical success for the irregular OPFOR. Factors that complement tactical surprise and massed firepower are—

Detailed plans and rehearsals.
Selection of ambush positions.
Rapid and violent conduct of the ambush.
Disciplined withdrawal of irregular OPFOR elements from the ambush site.

Functional Organization for an Ambush

An ambush force is typically organized into three types of elements: the ambush element, security element, and support element. There may be more than one of each element (see figure 7-1).

Ambush Element(s)

The ambush element has the mission of attacking and destroying enemy elements in kill zone(s). Other tasks may include capturing personnel and/or recovering supplies and equipment.

Security Element(s)

The security element has a mission to provide early warning to irregular OPFOR elements of any enemy presence that might disrupt the ambush. Another task can be to protect the ambush element from becoming decisively engaged by enemy forces before, during, or after the ambush.

Support Element(s)

The support element can include direct and/or indirect fires and provides general support to improve success of the ambush. The insurgent leader or guerrilla commander typically commands and controls the ambush from the support element. However, he will position himself where he can best command and control.

Executing an Ambush

There are three types of ambushes based on the desired mission effects⎯annihilation, harassment, or containment. The irregular OPFOR conduct ambushes with a particular purpose that often supports a larger tactical action.

Annihilation Ambush

The purpose of an annihilation ambush is to destroy an enemy force within a designated kill zone. In addition to massed direct fires, the irregular OPFOR often increases the lethality of a kill zone with indirect fires, manmade obstacles, mines, and/or improvised explosive devices (IEDs) to halt, contain, and kill the enemy force in the kill zone (see figure 7-2).

Note. For guerrilla forces, annihilation ambushes in complex terrain, including urban environments, often involve task-organized hunter-killer (HK) teams.

Irregular OPFOR commanders and leaders may be willing to accept decisive engagement with the enemy in this type of ambush. An annihilation ambush typically emphasizes tactical tasks to—

Block.
Contain.
Destroy.

The ambush and support elements normally remain in their fighting positions until the enemy in the kill zone is rendered combat ineffective. The intent is to destroy enemy personnel and equipment within the kill zone with concentrated firepower.

Once the enemy is destroyed, the ambush element can secure the kill zone and eliminate any remaining enemy in the kill zone. The support element provides overwatch protection to the ambush element when the ambush element is directed to search the destroyed enemy force and equipment for information and/or intelligence. Weapons and materiel can be seized by the ambush element for future irregular OPFOR tactical actions.

The security element remains in fighting positions to ensure early warning, isolate a kill zone, and prevent any enemy from escaping the kill zone. Once the ambush element clears the kill zone, the ambush force withdraws from the ambush area. The ambush element withdraws first and is followed by the support element. The security element is the last element to depart the kill zone area and delays or blocks any rapid response of enemy forces that attempt to pursue irregular OPFOR elements as they depart the kill zone area. Depending on the size of the ambush force, the elements typically reassemble at a predetermined location and time at a safe house or safe haven.

Note. An irregular OPFOR ambush could employ security elements to provide early warning and/or isolate a series of kill zones on a known convoy route of the enemy. Restrictive natural terrain and manmade features are reinforced with IEDs to disrupt and contain an enemy force in the kill zones. A simple ambush technique is to employ a decoy IED that is observable on an enemy force route. Once enemy forces halt to investigate the potential of an IED detonation, the ambush force initiates the actual ambush with the simultaneous detonation of IEDs directed into the kill zone where enemy soldiers and vehicles are expected to halt. Lead and trail vehicles are initially the primary targets for massed direct fires and destruction. When they are destroyed, the ambush and support elements shift direct and indirect fires from both ends of the enemy column toward the center of the contained enemy forces. The enemy convoy is destroyed with massed overlapping direct and indirect fires. Ambush elements and designated support elements exfiltrate from the area while security elements provide rear security and an all-arms air defense capability against any enemy response forces. On order, security elements also exfiltrate from the ambush site and rendezvous with other guerilla elements at a safe haven.

Harassment Ambush

The purpose of a harassment ambush is to disrupt routine enemy activities, impede the enemy’s freedom of movement, and/or create a negative psychological impact on enemy personnel. The irregular OPFOR may choose to conduct a harassment ambush when the enemy has superior combat power and destruction of an enemy force is not feasible as in an annihilation ambush. This type of ambush does not require the use of obstacles to keep the enemy in the kill zone but can include terrain reinforced into a kill zone with manmade obstacles, mines, and/or IEDs to halt and/or contain the enemy force for a limited period of time. Compared to an annihilation ambush, the irregular OPFOR typically conducts a harassment ambush at a greater distance from the enemy in a kill zone. A harassment ambush often considers the maximum effective range of its weapons when massing firepower.

The irregular OPFOR does not normally accept decisive engagement with the enemy in this type of ambush. A harassment ambush typically emphasizes tactical tasks that can include—

Disrupt.
Delay.
Defeat.

The ambush and support elements are often combined to provide more effective control of fires throughout the kill zone. This combination is especially useful when the kill zone is quite wide and/or extends for a long distance. The security element provides early warning of any enemy forces conducting reconnaissance prior to the ambush and/or enemy forces attempting to respond to the ambush.

Once the irregular OPFOR commander or leader determines that the ambush has achieved the desired effects, he directs the ambush and support elements to withdraw along designated routes. The security element continues to report on enemy activity in the kill zone area and any attempt of enemy forces to pursue. The irregular OPFOR will not become decisively engaged by enemy forces and often emplace mines and/or IEDs to delay enemy pursuit.

Repeated harassment ambushes against the enemy can⎯

Cause the enemy to allocate a disproportionate amount of forces to security tasks which affect other enemy force missions and potentially create enemy vulnerabilities.
Create a negative psychological effect upon enemy soldiers and leaders, and officials of a governing authority with which the irregular OPFOR is in conflict.

Containment Ambush

A containment ambush is a security task that is usually part of a larger tactical action. This type of ambush can prevent the enemy from using an avenue of approach or interdicting another tactical action such as a raid or another ambush.

The ambush element can be directed to secure a kill zone, but this task is not necessarily required for mission success. The support and security elements perform the same functions as those described in an annihilation ambush. Obstacles are an integral part of a successful containment ambush. The commander or leader determines if his relative combat power compared to enemy forces is adequate to conduct a containment ambush. The fact that containment may require the irregular OPFOR elements to remain in an ambush site for an extended period places those elements in danger of being fixed and defeated by enemy reinforcements.

The ambush force will normally not accept decisive engagement with the enemy in this type of ambush. However, it can be directed to accept decisive engagement in support of a larger irregular OPFOR action. A containment ambush typically emphasizes related tactical tasks that can include—

Contain.
Fix.
Delay.
Defeat.

Command and Control of an Ambush

The commander or leader of the ambush force normally positions himself with the support element and designates a subordinate leader to move and maneuver with the ambush element. However, the ambush force commander or leader locates himself where he can best command and control the ambush.

Urban and rural complex terrain provides several tactical advantages to irregular OPFOR ambush, security, and support elements. Operating among indigenous citizens in an urban area or other complex terrain can be used to—

Observe enemy forces along known canalized routes or areas of reconnaissance and/or avenues of approach or directions of attack.
Provide for easily camouflaged irregular OPFOR reconnaissance and surveillance activities.
Provide covered and/or concealed irregular OPFOR routes into and out of the ambush kill zone area.
Improve irregular OPFOR ambush, security, and support positions with cover, concealment, and camouflage of the natural and manmade tactical environment.
Encourage deception activities in a relevant civilian population against enemy forces and a governing authority.
Encourage techniques that employ overlapping direct fires from multiple directions into a designated kill zone.

Support of an Ambush

An ambush typically requires several types of support. These can include reconnaissance, fire support, air defense, engineer-like capabilities, logistics, and INFOWAR. Covert or overt assistance may also be provided from external sources such as special-purpose forces (SPF) of another state.

Reconnaissance