Chapter 13: CBRN and Smoke

The use of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) weapons can have an enormous impact on all combat actions. Because chemical employment is more likely than the other three types, this chapter begins by focusing on OPFOR chemical capabilities. Because the OPFOR may also have some biological, nuclear, and radiological capabilities, these also deserve discussion, despite of the lower probability of their employment. The chapter concludes with discussions of CBRN protection and employment of smoke.

Weapons of Mass Destruction

CBRN weapons are a subset of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), although the latter exclude the delivery means where such means is a separable and divisible part of the weapon. WMD are weapons or devices intended for or capable of causing a high order of physical destruction or mass casualties (death or serious bodily injury to a significant number of people). The casualty-producing elements of WMD can continue inflicting casualties on the enemy and exert powerful psychological effects on the enemy's morale for some time after delivery.

Existing types of WMD include chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons. However, technological advances are making it possible to develop WMD based on qualitatively new principles, such as infrasonic (acoustic) or particle-beam weapons. In addition, conventional weapons, such as precision weapons or volumetric explosives, can also take on the properties of WMD.

Preparedness

In response to foreign developments, the OPFOR maintains a capability to conduct  chemical, nuclear, and possibly biological or radiological warfare. However, it would prefer to avoid the use of CBRN weapons by either side. This is especially true of nuclear and biological weapons, which have lethal effects over much larger areas than do chemical weapons. The effects of biological weapons can be difficult to localize and to employ in combat without affecting friendly forces. Their effects on the enemy can be difficult to predict. Unlike nuclear or biological weapons, chemical agents can be used to affect limited areas of the battlefield. The consequences of chemical weapons use are more predictable and thus more readily integrated into battle plans at the tactical level. In the event that either side resorts to CBRN weapons, the OPFOR is prepared to employ CBRN protection measures.

Multiple Options

Force modernization has introduced a degree of flexibility previously unavailable to combined arms commanders. It creates multiple options for the employment of forces at strategic, operational, and tactical levels with or without the use of CBRN weapons. Many of the same delivery means available for CBRN weapons can also be used to deliver precision weapons that can often achieve desired effects without the stigma associated with CBRN weapons.

The OPFOR might use CBRN weapons either to deter aggression or as a response to an enemy attack. It has surface-to-surface missiles (SSMs) capable of carrying nuclear, chemical, or biological warheads. Most OPFOR artillery is capable of delivering chemical munitions, and most systems 152-mm and larger are capable of firing nuclear rounds. Additionally, the OPFOR could use aircraft systems and cruise missiles to deliver a CBRN attack. The OPFOR has also trained special-purpose forces (SPF) as alternate means of delivering CBRN munitions packages.

The threat of using these systems to deliver CBRN weapons is also an intimidating factor. Should any opponent use its own CBRN capability against the OPFOR, the OPFOR is prepared to retaliate in kind. It is also possible that the OPFOR could use CBRN against a neighbor as a warning to any potential enemy that it is willing to use such weapons. The fact that CBRN weapons may also place noncombatants at risk is also a positive factor from the OPFOR’s perspective. Thus, it may use or threaten to use CBRN weapons as a way of applying political, economic, or psychological pressure by allowing the enemy no sanctuary.

Targeting

The OPFOR considers the following targets to be suitable for the employment of CBRN weapons:

• CBRN delivery means and their supply structure.
• Precision weapons.
• Prepared defensive positions.
• Reserves and troop concentrations.
• Command and control (C2) centers.
• Communications centers.
• Reconnaissance, intelligence, surveillance, and target acquisition centers.
• Key air defense sites.
• Logistics installations, especially port facilities.
• Airfields the OPFOR does not intend to use immediately.

Enemy CBRN delivery means (aircraft, artillery, missiles, and rockets) normally receive the  highest priority. The suitability of other targets depends on the OPFOR’s missions, the current military and political situation, and the CBRN weapons available for use.

Staff Responsibility

On the functional staff of a division- or brigade-level headquarters, the chief of WMD is responsible for planning the offensive use of WMD, including CBRN weapons. (See the subsections on Release under Chemical Warfare, Nuclear Warfare, and Biological Warfare below.) The WMD staff element advises the command group and the primary and secondary staff on issues pertaining to CBRN employment. The WMD element receives liaison teams from any subordinate or supporting units that contain WMD delivery means.

CBRN defense comes under the chief of force protection. The force protection element of the functional staff may receive liaison teams from any subordinate or supporting chemical defense units. However, those units can also send liaison teams to other parts of the staff, as necessary (including, for example, the chief of reconnaissance).

Chemical Warfare

The OPFOR is equipped, structured, and trained to conduct both offensive and defensive chemical warfare. It is continually striving to improve its chemical warfare capabilities. It believes that an army using chemical weapons must be prepared to fight in the environment it creates. Therefore, it views chemical defense as part of a viable offensive chemical warfare capability. It maintains a large inventory of individual and collective chemical protection and decontamination equipment. (See the CBRN Protection portion of this chapter.)

Weapons and Agents

Virtually all OPFOR indirect fire weapons can deliver chemical agents. These delivery means include aircraft, multiple rocket launchers (MRLs), artillery, mines, rockets, and SSMs. Other possible delivery means could include SPF, affiliated insurgent or guerrilla organizations, or civilian sympathizers. For additional information on delivery systems, see the Worldwide Equipment Guide.

One way of classifying chemical agents according to the effect they have on persons. Thus, there are two major types, each with subcategories. Lethal agents, categorized by how they attack and kill personnel, include nerve, blood, blister, and choking agents. Nonlethal agents include incapacitants and irritants.

Nerve Agents

Nerve agents are fast-acting. Practically odorless and colorless, they attack the body’s nervous system, causing convulsions and eventually death. Nerve agents are further classified as either G- or V- agents. At low concentrations, the sarin (GB) series incapacitates. It kills if inhaled or absorbed through the skin. The rate of action is very rapid if inhaled, but slower if absorbed through the skin. V-agents produce similar effects, but are quicker-acting and more persistent than G-agents.

Blood Agents

Blood agents block the body’s oxygen transferal mechanisms, leading to death by suffocation. A common blood agent is hydrogen cyanide (AC). It kills quickly and dissipates rapidly.

Blister Agents

Blister agents, such as mustard (H) or lewisite (L) and combinations of these two compounds, can disable or kill after contact with the skin, being inhaled into the lungs, or being ingested. Contact with the skin can cause painful blisters, and eye contact can cause blindness. These agents are especially lethal when inhaled.

Choking Agents

Choking agents, such as phosgene (CG) and diphosgene (DP), block respiration by damaging the breathing mechanism, which can be fatal. As with blood agents, this type is nonpersistent, and poisoning comes through inhalation. Signs and symptoms of toxicity may be delayed up to 24 hours.

Incapacitants

Incapacitants include psychochemical agents and paralyzants. These agents can disrupt a victim’s mental and physical capabilities. The victim may not lose consciousness, and the effects usually wear off without leaving permanent physical injuries.

Irritants

Irritants, also known as riot-control agents, cause a strong burning sensation in the eyes, mouth, skin, and respiratory tract. The best known of these agents is tear gas (CS). Their effects  are  also temporary. Victims recover completely without having any serious aftereffects.

Agent Persistency

Chemical agents are also categorized according to their persistency. Generally, the OPFOR would use persistent agents on areas it does not plan to enter and nonpersistent agents where it does.

Persistent Agents

Persistent agents can retain their disabling or lethal characteristics from days to weeks, depending on environmental conditions. Aside from producing mass casualties initially, persistent agents can produce a steady rate of attrition and have a devastating effect on morale. They can seriously degrade the performance of personnel in protective clothing or impose delays for decontamination.

Nonpersistent Agents

Nonpersistent agents generally last a shorter period of time than persistent agents, depending on weather conditions. The use of a nonpersistent agent at a critical moment in battle can produce casualties or force enemy troops into a higher level of individual protective measures. With proper timing and distance, the OPFOR can employ nonpersistent agents and then have its maneuver units advance into or occupy an enemy position without having to decontaminate the area or don protective gear.

Other Toxic Chemicals

In addition to traditional chemical warfare agents, the OPFOR may find creative and adaptive ways to cause chemical hazards using chemicals commonly present in industry or in everyday households. In the right combination, or in and of themselves, the large-scale release of such chemicals can present a health risk, whether caused by military operations, intentional use, or accidental release.

Toxic Industrial Chemicals

Toxic industrial chemicals (TICs) are chemical substances with acute toxicity that are produced in large quantities for industrial purposes. Exposure to some industrial chemicals can have a lethal or debilitating effect on humans. They are a potentially attractive option for use as weapons of opportunity or WMD because of—

• The near-universal availability of large quantities of highly toxic stored materials.
• Their proximity to urban areas.
• Their low cost.
• The low security associated with storage facilities.

Employing a TIC against an opponent by means of a weapon delivery system, whether conventional or unconventional, is considered a chemical warfare attack, with the TIC used as a chemical agent. The target may be the enemy’s military forces or a civilian population.

In addition to the threat from intentional use as weapons, catastrophic accidental releases of stored industrial chemicals may result from—

• Collateral damage associated with military operations.
• Electrical power interruption.
• Improper facility maintenance or shutdown procedures.

These events are common in armed conflict and post-conflict urban environments.

The most important factors to consider when assessing the potential for adverse human health impacts from a chemical release are—

• Acute toxicity.
• Physical properties (volatility, reactivity, and flammability).
• The likelihood that large quantities will be accidentally released or available for exploitation. Foremost among these factors is acute toxicity.

The following are examples of high- and moderate-risk TICs. The risk assessment is based on acute toxicity by inhalation, worldwide availability (number of producers and number of countries where the substance is available), and physical state (gas, liquid, or solid) at standard temperature and pressure:

• High-risk.  Ammonia,  chlorine, fluorine,  formaldehyde,  hydrogen chloride,  phosgene,  and sulfuric acid.
• Moderate-risk. Carbon monoxide, methyl bromide, nitrogen dioxide, and phosphine.

This list does not include all chemicals with high toxicity and availability. Specifically, chemicals with low volatility are not included. Low-vapor pressure chemicals include some of the most highly toxic chemicals widely available, including most pesticides.

Some of the high-risk TICs are frequently present in an operational environment. Chlorine (water treatment and cleaning materials), phosgene (insecticides and fertilizers), and hydrogen cyanide are traditional chemical warfare agents that are also considered TICs. Cyanide salts may be used to contaminate food or water supplies. Hydrogen chloride is used in the production of hydrochloric acid. Formaldehyde is a disinfectant and preservative. Fluorine is a base element that is used to produce fluorocarbons. Fluorocarbons are any of various chemically inert compounds that contain both carbon and fluorine. Fluorocarbons are present in common products (refrigerants, lubricants, and nonstick coatings) and are used in the production of resins and plastics.

Household Chemicals

The OPFOR understands that some everyday household chemicals have incompatible properties that result in undesired chemical reaction when mixed with other chemicals. This includes substances that will react to cause an imminent threat to health and safety, such as explosion, fire, and/or the formation of toxic materials. For example, chlorine bleach, when mixed with ammonia, will generate the toxic gases chloramine and hydrazine that can cause serious injury or death. Another example of such incompatibilities is the reaction of alkali metals, such as sodium or potassium, with water. Sodium is commonly used in the commercial manufacture of cyanide, azide, and peroxide, and in photoelectric cells and sodium lamps. It has a very large latent heat capacity and is used in molten form as a coolant in nuclear breeder reactors. The mixture of sodium with water produces sodium hydroxide, which can cause severe burns upon skin contact.

Chemical Release

Among CBRN weapons, the OPFOR is most likely to use chemical weapons against even a more powerful enemy, particularly if the enemy does not have the capability to respond in kind. Since the OPFOR does not believe that first use of chemical agents against units in the field would provoke a nuclear response, it is less rigid than forces of other nations in the control of chemical release.

Initially, the use of chemical weapons is subject to the same level of decision as nuclear and biological weapons. At all levels of command, a chemical weapons plan is part of the fire support plan. Once the National Command Authority (NCA) has released initial authorization for the use of chemical weapons, commanders can employ them freely, as the situation demands. Then each commander at the operational-strategic command (OSC) and lower levels who has systems capable of chemical delivery can implement the chemical portions of his fire support plan, as necessary.

After a decision for nuclear use, the OPFOR can employ chemical weapons to complement nuclear weapons. However, the OPFOR perceives that chemical weapons have a unique role, and their use does not depend on initiation of nuclear warfare. It is possible that the OPFOR would use chemical weapons early in an operation or strategic campaign or from its outset. It would prefer not to use chemical weapons within its own borders. However, it would contaminate its own soil if necessary in order to preserve the regime or its sovereignty.

Offensive Chemical Employment

The basic principle of chemical warfare is to achieve surprise. It is common to mix chemical rounds with high-explosive (HE) rounds in order to achieve chemical surprise. Chemical casualties inflicted and the necessity of chemical protective gear degrade enemy defensive actions. The OPFOR also may use chemical agents to restrict the use of terrain. For example, contamination of key points along the enemy’s lines of communications can seriously disrupt his resupply and reinforcement. Simultaneously, it can keep those points intact for subsequent use by the attacking OPFOR.

Nonpersistent agents are suitable for use against targets on axes the OPFOR intends to exploit. While possibly used against deep targets, their most likely role is to prepare the way for an assault by maneuver units, especially when enemy positions are not known in detail. The OPFOR may also use nonpersistent agents against civilian population centers in order to create panic and a flood of refugees.

Persistent agents are suitable against targets the OPFOR cannot destroy by  conventional or precision weapons. This can be because a target is too large or located with insufficient accuracy for attack by other than an area weapon. Persistent agents can neutralize such targets without a pinpoint attack.

In the offense, likely chemical targets include—

• Troops occupying defensive positions, using nonpersistent agents delivered by MRLs to neutralize these troops just before launching a ground attack. Ideally, these agents would be dissipating just as the attacking OPFOR units enter the area where the chemical attack occurred.
• CBRN delivery systems, troop concentration areas, headquarters, and artillery positions, using all types of chemical agents delivered by tube artillery, MRLs, SSMs, and aircraft.
• Bypassed pockets of resistance (especially those that pose a threat to the attacking forces), using persistent agents.
• Possible assembly areas for enemy counterattack forces, using persistent agents.

The OPFOR could use chemical attacks against such targets simultaneously throughout the enemy defenses. These chemical attacks combine with other forms of conventional attack to neutralize enemy nuclear capability, C2 systems, and aviation. Subsequent chemical attacks may target logistics facilities. The OPFOR would use persistent agents deep within the enemy’s rear and along troop flanks to protect advancing units.

Defensive Chemical Employment

When the enemy is preparing to attack, the OPFOR can use chemical attacks to—

• Disrupt activity in his assembly areas.
• Limit his ability to maneuver into axes favorable to the attack.
• Deny routes of advance for his reserves.

Once the enemy attack begins, the use of chemical agents can impede an attacking force. It can destroy the momentum of the attack by causing casualties or causing attacking troops to adopt protective measures. Persistent chemical agents can deny the enemy certain terrain and canalize attacking forces into kill zones.

Biological Warfare

The OPFOR closely controls information about the status of its biological warfare capabilities. This creates uncertainty among its neighbors and other potential opponents as to what types of biological agents the OPFOR might possess and how it might employ them.

Biological weapons can provide a great equalizer in the face of a numerically and/or technologically superior adversary that the OPFOR cannot defeat in a conventional confrontation. However, their effects on the enemy can be difficult to predict, and the OPFOR must also be concerned about the possibility that the effects could spread to friendly forces.

Weapons and Agents

Biological weapons consist of pathogenic microbes, micro-organism toxins, and bioregulating compounds. Depending on the specific type, these weapons can incapacitate or kill people or animals and destroy plants, food supplies, or materiel. The type of target being attacked determines the choice of agent and dissemination system.

Pathogens

Pathogens cause diseases such as anthrax, cholera, plague, smallpox, tularemia, or various types of fever. These weapons would be used against targets such as food supplies, port facilities, and population centers to create panic and disrupt mobilization plans.

Toxins

Toxins are produced by pathogens and also by snakes, spiders, sea creatures, and plants. Toxins are faster acting and more stable than live pathogens. Most toxins are easily produced through genetic engineering. Toxins produce casualties rapidly and can be used against tactical and operational targets.

Bioregulators

Bioregulators are chemical compounds that are essential for the normal psychological and physiological functions. A wide variety of bioregulators are normally present in the human body in extremely minute concentrations. These low-molecular-weight compounds, usually peptides (made up of amino acids), include neurotransmitters, hormones, and enzymes. Examples of bioregulators are—

• Insulin (a pancreatic protein hormone that is essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates).
• Enkephalin (either of two pentapeptides with opiate and analgesic activity that occur naturally in the brain and have a marked affinity for opiate receptors).

These compounds can produce a wide range of harmful effects if introduced into the body at higher than normal concentrations or if they have been altered. Psychological effects could include exaggerated fear and pain. In addition, bioregulators can cause severe physiological effects such as rapid unconsciousness and, depending on such factors as dose and route of administration, can also be lethal. Unlike pathogens, which take hours or days to act, bioregulators could act in only minutes. The small peptides, having fewer than 12 amino-acid groups, are most amenable to military application.

Agent Effects

Biological weapons are extremely potent and provide wide-area coverage. Some biological agents are extremely persistent, retaining their capabilities to infect for days, weeks, or longer. Biological weapons can take some time (depending on the agent) to achieve their full effect. To allow these agents sufficient time to take effect, the OPFOR may use clandestine means, such as SPF or civilian sympathizers, to deliver biological agents in advance of a planned attack or even before the war begins.

Delivery Means

It is possible to disseminate biological agents in a number of ways. Generally, the objective is to expose enemy forces to an agent in the form of a suspended cloud of very fine biological agent particles. Dissemination through aerosols, either as droplets from liquid suspensions or by small particles from dry powders, is by far the most efficient method. For additional information on delivery systems see the Worldwide Equipment Guide.

There are two basic types of biological munitions:

• Point-source bomblets delivered directly on targets.
• Line-source tanks that release the agent upwind from the target. Within each category, there can be multiple shapes and configurations.

Military systems, as well as unconventional means, can deliver biological agents. Potential delivery means include rockets, artillery shells, aircraft sprayers, saboteurs, and infected rodents. The OPFOR might use SPF, affiliated irregular forces, and/or civilian sympathizers to deliver biological agents within the region, outside the immediate region (to divert enemy attention and resources), or even in the enemy’s homeland.

Targets

Probable targets for biological warfare pathogen attack are enemy CBRN delivery units, airfields, logistics facilities, and C2 centers. The OPFOR may target biological weapons against objectives such as food supplies, water sources, troop concentrations, convoys, and urban and rural population centers rather than against frontline forces. The use of biological agents against rear area targets can disrupt and degrade enemy mobilization plans as well as the subsequent conduct of war. This type of targeting can also reduce the likelihood that friendly forces would become infected.

Biological Release

The decision to employ biological agents is a political decision made at the national level⎯by the NCA. Besides the political ramifications, the OPFOR recognizes a degree of danger inherent in the use of biological agents, due to the difficulty or controlling an epidemic caused by them.

The prolonged incubation period makes it difficult to track down the initial location and circumstances of contamination. Thus, there is the possibility of plausible deniability. Even if an opponent might be able to trace a biological attack back to the OPFOR, it may not be able to respond in kind.

Radiological Weapons

It is possible that the OPFOR may develop and employ radiological weapons whose effects are achieved by using toxic radioactive materials against desired targets. The purpose of employing radiological materials could be to achieve leverage or intimidation against regional neighbors. However, such weapons could also be used to deter intervention by extraregional forces or to disrupt such forces once deployed in the region. While they can be used as area denial, intimidation, and political weapons, radiological weapons are also considered weapons of terror.

A radiological weapon is any device, including weapon or equipment other than a nuclear explosive device, specifically designed to employ radioactive material by disseminating it to cause destruction, damage, or injury by means of the radiation produced by the decay of such material. Radiological weapons differ from chemical and biological weapons in that radiation cannot be “neutralized” or “sterilized” and many radiological materials have half-lives in years. Two general types of radiological weapons are radiological dispersal devices and radiological exposure devices.

Radiological Dispersal Devices

A radiological dispersal device (RDD) is an improvised assembly or process, other than a nuclear explosive device, designed to disseminate radioactive material in order to cause destruction, damage, or injury. Unlike nuclear weapons, RDDs do not produce a nuclear explosion. However, RDDs spread radioactive material contaminating personnel, equipment, facilities, and terrain. They kill or injure by exposing people to radioactive material. Victims are irradiated when they get close to or touch the material, inhale it, or ingest it. The actual dose rate depends on the type and quantity of radioactive material spread over the area, and contributing factors such as weather and terrain.

The OPFOR could disperse radioactive material using low-level radiation sources in a number of ways, such as—

• Arming the warhead of a conventional missile with active material from a nuclear reactor.
• Releasing low-level radioactive material intended for use in industry or medicine.
• Disseminating material from a research or power-generating nuclear reactor.
• Depositing a radioactive source in a water supply.

Dispersal of radioactive materials is inexpensive and requires limited resources and technical knowledge. The primary source for radioactive material used in the construction of RDDs is from nuclear power plants and radioactive materials used in hospitals.

One design of RDD, popularly called a “dirty bomb,” uses conventional explosives to disperse radioactive contamination. Any conventional or improvised explosive device can be used by placing it in close proximity to radioactive material. The explosion causes the dissemination of the radioactive material. A dirty bomb typically generates its immediate casualties from the direct effects of the conventional explosion (blast injuries and trauma). However, one of the primary purposes of a dirty bomb is to frighten people by contaminating their environment with radioactive materials and threatening large numbers of people  with exposure. As an area denial  weapon,  an  RDD  can generate significant  public  fear  and economic impact. In some cases, an area may not be habitable for nonmilitary personnel, but military operations could continue, with appropriate protective measures.

Radiological Exposure Devices

A radiological exposure device (RED) is a radioactive source placed to cause injury or death. In this case, rather than resulting from dispersed radioactive material, radioactive exposure results from discrete sources, such as a radioactive source concealed in a high traffic area. The placement of an RED may be covert in order to increase the potential dose if the source is not detected.

Nuclear Warfare

The OPFOR believes a war is most likely to begin with a phase of nonnuclear combat that may include the use of chemical weapons. The OPFOR emphasizes the destruction of as much as possible of enemy nuclear capability during this nonnuclear phase. To do so, it would use air and missile attacks; airborne, heliborne, and special-purpose forces; and rapid, deep penetrations by ground forces.  The OPFOR hopes these attacks can deny the enemy a credible nuclear option.

Delivery Means

If the OPFOR decides to use nuclear weapons, the nuclear delivery systems may include aircraft from both national- and theater-level aviation, and SSMs. Most artillery 152-mm or larger is capable of firing nuclear rounds, if such rounds are available. Other possible delivery means could include SPF. The OPFOR may also choose to use affiliated forces for nuclear delivery. For additional information on nuclear delivery systems, see the Worldwide Equipment Guide.

Transition to Nuclear

Even when nuclear weapons are not used at the outset of a conflict, OPFOR commanders deploy troops based on the assumption that a nuclear-capable enemy might attack with nuclear weapons at any moment. The OPFOR continuously updates its own plans for nuclear employment, although it prefers to avoid nuclear warfare. As long as it achieves its objectives, and there are no indications that the enemy is going to use nuclear weapons, the OPFOR would likely not use them either. However, it could attempt to preempt enemy nuclear use by conducting an initial nuclear attack. Otherwise, any OPFOR decision to go nuclear would have to be made early in the conflict, so that sufficient nonnuclear power would remain to follow up and to exploit the gains of nuclear employment.

If any opponent were to use nuclear weapons against the OPFOR, the OPFOR would respond in kind, as long as it is still capable. The same would be true of any nuclear-capable opponent, if the OPFOR were the first to use nuclear means. While the OPFOR recognizes the advantage of its own first use, it may risk first use only when the payoff appears to outweigh the potential costs. Therefore, it will probably avoid the use of nuclear weapons against a more powerful enemy unless survival of the regime or the nation is at stake.

The OPFOR is probably more likely to use its nuclear capability against a less powerful opponent. The likelihood increases if that opponent uses or threatens to use its own nuclear weapons against the OPFOR or does not have the means to retaliate in kind. This could account for a nuclear or nuclear- threatened environment existing at the time a more powerful force might choose to intervene.

Types of Nuclear Attack

The OPFOR categorizes nuclear attacks as either massed or individual attacks. The category depends on the number of targets hit and the number of nuclear munitions used.

A massed nuclear attack employs multiple nuclear munitions simultaneously or over a short time interval. The goal is to destroy a single large enemy formation, or several formations, as well as other important enemy targets. A massed attack can involve a single service of the Armed Forces, as in a nuclear missile attack by the Strategic Forces, or the combined forces of different services.

An individual nuclear attack may hit a single target or group of targets. The attack consists of a single nuclear munition, such as a missile or bomb.

Nuclear Release

At all stages of a conflict, the OPFOR keeps nuclear-capable forces ready to make an attack. The decision to initiate nuclear warfare is a political decision made at the national level.

After the initial nuclear release, the NCA may delegate employment authority for subsequent nuclear attacks to an OSC commander. The commander of the OSC’s integrated fires command submits recommendations for the subsequent employment of nuclear and chemical weapons to the OSC commander for approval and integration into OSC fire support plans.

Offensive Nuclear Employment

Once the NCA releases nuclear weapons, two principles govern their use: mass and surprise. The OPFOR plans to conduct the initial nuclear attack suddenly and in coordination with nonnuclear fires. Initial nuclear attack objectives are to destroy the enemy’s main combat formations, C2 systems, and nuclear and precision weapons, thereby isolating the battlefield.

Nuclear attacks target and destroy the enemy’s defenses and set the conditions for an exploitation force. Other fire support means support the assault and fixing forces. The OPFOR may plan high-speed air and ground offensive actions to exploit the nuclear attack.

If the enemy continues to offer organized resistance, the OPFOR might  employ subsequent nuclear attacks to reinitiate the offense. Nuclear attacks can eliminate the threat of a counterattack or clear resistance from the opposite bank in a water obstacle crossing. If the enemy begins to withdraw, the OPFOR plans nuclear attacks on choke points where retreating enemy forces present lucrative targets.

Planning

Although the opening stages of an offensive action are likely to be conventional, OPFOR planning focuses on the necessity of—

• Countering enemy employment of nuclear weapons.
• Maintaining the initiative and momentum.
• Maintaining fire superiority over the enemy (preempting his nuclear attack, if necessary).

When planning offensive actions, the OPFOR plans nuclear fires in detail. Forces conducting the main attack would probably receive the highest percentage of weapons. However, the OPFOR may also reserve weapons for other large, important targets. In more fluid situations, such as during exploitation, the commander may keep some nuclear weapon systems at high readiness to fire on targets of opportunity. Nuclear allocations vary with the strength of the enemy defense and the scheme of maneuver.

Since the enemy too is under nuclear threat, he also must disperse his formations, which can make him more vulnerable to penetration by an attacking force. However, the OPFOR realizes that enemy troops are also highly mobile and capable of rapidly concentrating to protect a threatened area. Therefore, it considers surprise and timing of offensive actions to be extremely critical in order to complicate enemy targeting and deny him the time to use his mobility.

Execution

Upon securing a nuclear release, the OPFOR would direct nuclear attacks against the strongest points of the enemy’s formations and throughout his tactical and operational depth. This would create gaps through which maneuver units, in “nuclear-dispersed” formations, would attack as an exploitation force. As closely as safety and circumstances permit, maneuver forces follow up on attacks near the battle line. Airborne troops may exploit deep attacks.

An exploitation force would probably attack to take full advantage of the speed of advance it could expect to achieve. The aim of these maneuver units would be to seize or neutralize remaining enemy nuclear weapons, delivery systems, and C2 systems. By attacking from different directions, the maneuver units would try to split and isolate the enemy.

Commanders would ensure a rapid tempo of advance by assigning tank and mechanized infantry units to the exploitation force. Such units are quite effective in this role, because they have maneuverability, firepower, lower vulnerability to enemy nuclear attacks, and the capability to achieve penetrations of great depth.

Defensive Nuclear Employment

Primary uses of nuclear weapons in the defense are to—

• Destroy enemy nuclear and precision weapons and delivery means.
• Destroy main attacking groups.
• Conduct counterpreparations.
• Eliminate penetrations.
• Support counterattacks.
• Deny areas to the enemy.

If nuclear weapons degrade an enemy attack, the OPFOR could gain the opportunity to switch quickly to an offensive role.

CBRN Protection

Due to the proliferation of CBRN weapons, the OPFOR must anticipate their use, particularly the employment of chemical weapons. OPFOR planners believe that the best solution is to locate and destroy enemy CBRN weapons, delivery systems, and their supporting infrastructure before the enemy can use them against the OPFOR. In case this fails and it is necessary to continue combat actions despite the presence of contaminants, the OPFOR has developed and fielded a wide range of CBRN detection and warning devices, individual and collective protection equipment, and decontamination equipment. The OPFOR conducts rigorous training for CBRN defense.

OPFOR planners readily admit that casualties would be considerable in any future war involving the use of CBRN weapons. However, they believe that the timely use of active and passive measures can significantly reduce a combat unit’s vulnerability. These measures include but are not limited to protective equipment, correct employment of reconnaissance assets, and expeditious decontamination procedures. Other operational-tactical responses to the threat include⎯

• Dispersion: Concentrations must last for as short a time as possible.
• Speed of advance: If the advance generates enough momentum, this can make enemy targeting difficult and keep enemy systems on the move.
• Camouflage, concealment, cover, and deception (C3D): C3D measures complicate enemy targeting.
• Continuous  contact:  The enemy  cannot  attack  with  CBRN weapons as long as there is intermingling of friendly and enemy forces.

Organization

OPFOR chemical defense units are responsible for biological, radiological, and nuclear, as well as chemical, protection and reconnaissance measures. In the administrative force structure, such units are subordinate to all maneuver units brigade and above. During task-organizing, tactical-level commands may also receive additional chemical defense units allocated from the OSC or higher-level tactical command. However, those higher headquarters typically retain some chemical defense assets at their respective levels to deal with the threat to the support zone and provide chemical defense reserves.