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Chapter 1: Irregular Opposing Force Fundamentals

This page is a section of TC 7-100.3 Irregular Opposing Forces.

This chapter describes the fundamental characteristics of the irregular opposing force (OPFOR). This TC portrays three main categories of irregular OPFOR: insurgents (chapter 2); guerrillas (chapter 3); and criminals (chapter 4). Other actors present in an operational environment (OE) can be willing, coerced, and/or unknowing participants in irregular OPFOR activities (chapter 5). The irregular OPFOR interacts with the eight operational variables that make up an OE. This interaction among variables adds to the complexity of an OE and creates multiple opportunities for the irregular OPFOR to optimize its capabilities against an enemy. The irregular OPFOR can use terrorism as a tactic (chapter 6) in addition to military-like functional techniques (chapter 7). A table in this chapter compares and contrasts the capabilities and limitations characteristic of a guerrilla force, an insurgent organization, and a criminal organization. The particular capabilities and limitations of the various types of irregular OPFOR are described in subsequent chapters of this TC.

Hybrid Threat

The irregular OPFOR can be part of the Hybrid Threat (HT). (For more information of the HT, see TC 7-100.) The HT can be any combination of two or more of the following components: regular military forces, irregular forces, and/or criminal elements. The irregular OPFOR component of the HT can be insurgents, guerrillas, or criminals or any combination thereof. The irregular OPFOR can also include other armed individuals or groups who are not members of a governing authority’s domestic law enforcement organizations or other internal security forces. On occasion, situations may occur where unarmed individuals or groups may be part of the irregular OPFOR and the HT. An example of unarmed individuals aligned with the HT in an active support role is when segments of the population participate in public demonstrations against an enemy of the HT. Possible HT combinations include parts of the irregular OPFOR operating openly with regular military forces, being sponsored directly or indirectly by a state’s government, or being supported by non-state organizations.

The irregular OPFOR can be part of the HT, but can also operate independently without any allegiance to or collaboration with other types of forces associated with the HT. Various state and non-state organizations, regular military forces, paramilitary forces, and/or criminal organizations might be operating in the same space and time as the irregular OPFOR but not be part of the irregular OPFOR or the HT. To be a hybrid threat, all these components would have to be “unified to achieve mutually benefitting effects” (ADRP 3-0 and TC 7-100).

Capabilities and Intent

The irregular OPFOR is adaptive, flexible, and agile. It can quickly change its composition to optimize organizational capabilities and use those capabilities against known or perceived vulnerabilities of an enemy. The irregular OPFOR takes prudent risks when an expectation exists for successful attack on an enemy. However, it may also make significant practical sacrifices in individuals and materiel in order to achieve a major psychological impact on an enemy. An example of such deliberate sacrifice is a number of nearly simultaneous, small unit or direct action cell assaults on targets that result in the deaths of all attackers, but receive sensational media coverage to a global audience.

The intent of the irregular OPFOR is to acquire a range of capabilities and use them at selected times and locations in order to achieve desired effects. It can use those capabilities against an enemy. However,the irregular OPFOR can also use functional tactics and/or terrorism to manipulate a population and dissuade support to an enemy’s military forces and/or other institutions. When necessary, it will use acts of violence to gain influence and develop willing or coerced cooperation. Concurrently, it will use indirect means to progressively degrade an enemy’s physical power and infrastructure, and to psychologically influence the political, social, economic, military, and information variables of an OE. The irregular OPFOR will attempt to exploit its familiarity with the physical environment and its ability to blend into the local populace. The time variable normally favors the irregular OPFOR. The activities of the irregular OPFOR are constant over a long period of time, but may change in pace, tempo, and speed. The timing of actions will sometimes appear random when the actual mode of the irregular OPFOR and its activities are deliberate decisions as part of a long-term campaign or strategy.

One of the most significant capabilities of the irregular OPFOR is the ability to manipulate and/or ignore the restrictions and sanctions that apply to regulated military forces, law enforcement agencies, and internal security forces belonging to a sovereign state. International protocols and conventions, national statutes and law, and moral codes that guide behavioral norms and social interactions can limit the enemy’s use of weapon systems and other capabilities that overmatch irregular OPFOR capabilities. The irregular OPFOR can make exceptions by complying with these codes of conduct when that is advantageous for its information warfare campaign. However, it can easily abandon those standards when they no longer provide operational value. When regular military forces of a state incorporate clandestine use of the irregular OPFOR, the state can often plausibly deny responsibility for actions conducted by irregular forces.

Although violent actions by any individual organization or combination intend to receive immediate notoriety, the irregular OPFOR complements violent actions with methodical, long-term psychological warfare. The overarching agenda of the irregular OPFOR can include but is not limited to the following issues:

  • Expand support and/or control within an area or region.
  • Deter opposition to its objectives within a relevant population.
  • Obtain popular recognition and support of its objectives by designated segments of a population.
  • Marginalize the governance and/or extraregional influence of an adversary.
  • Attract an international or global audience and/or external sources of influence to support irregular OPFOR aims.

The irregular OPFOR seeks to gain the approval and support of at least certain elements of a relevant population in order to obtain active or passive assistance. The methods by which it acquires such influence are complex in any OE. Normally, it must communicate a compelling narrative of legitimacy that is accepted by the population. This credential of legitimacy may require a gradual process of convincing the relevant population that the irregular OPFOR is an acceptable means to achieve desired social, religious, or political effects. However, the irregular OPFOR may confer authority on itself without regard to the population’s goals.

An enemy of the irregular OPFOR may maintain that the OPFOR concept of legitimacy is corrupt and illicit. The irregular OPFOR may declare that its actions are justifiable under existing conditions, and attempt to degrade the legitimacy of a governing authority. Over time, the irregular OPFOR seeks to obtain recognition of its legitimacy by a willing populace and official recognition from external states and/or organizations in order to accomplish its long-term goals. Once its authority is recognized, the irregular OPFOR seeks to maintain the legitimacy of its cause, its leadership role, and its actions.

Sometimes external recognition and support is not as important to the irregular OPFOR as is establishing a geographic enclave from which to plan, prepare, and conduct its activities and influence. The irregular OPFOR conducts direct and indirect actions that are adaptive and persistent. This form of conflict incorporates irregular forces typically categorized as insurgents or guerrillas, and includes selective actions coordinated with criminal organizations. Particular actions can be purposely conducted as acts of terrorism, or can employ more military-like tactics. All of these actions are described in terms of the common functional framework described in the 7-100 series of FMs and TCs.

Complexity and Collaboration

The irregular OPFOR may be part of a complex array of irregular and regular OPFOR organizations, units, or individuals with various coordinated and/or disparate single-agenda aims. A particular geographic, political, cyberspace, or ideological environment may lead to alliances or affiliations that are dynamic and constantly changing. Discrete incidents may not seem to be part of an overall plan. However, detailed analysis of the irregular OPFOR actions and associated political, social, economic, information, and other events normally reveals a vision supporting a long-range aim.

In particular conditions and circumstances, irregular OPFOR actions can include support from regular military forces and/or special-purpose forces (SPF) from a state or states. Internal security forces and/or law enforcement organizations that have been infiltrated by the irregular OPFOR can also support irregular OPFOR actions within an area or region. The collaboration among organizations, units, and/or individuals of a relevant population may be based on coercion, contractual agreement, and/or temporary or long-term common goals and objectives.

Possible rationales for irregular OPFOR collaboration with other organizations or individuals in an OE can include—

  • Spotlight grievances for resolution.
  • Establish influence over a relevant segment of a population.
  • Develop acceptance and legitimacy of irregular OPFOR programs and actions.
  • Achieve OPFOR objectives without alienating critical segments of indigenous and/or extraregional populations.
  • Cultivate active or passive supporters.

Irregular OPFOR objectives may promote solutions to grievances in the context of a particular population. The irregular OPFOR may prefer to use indirect approaches such as subterfuge, deception, and nonlethal action to achieve its objectives. However, it is committed to violent action, when necessary, in order to compel an enemy and/or an opposing form of governance to submit to its intentions. Some irregular OPFOR organizations such as affiliated criminal gangs exist for their own commercial profit and power, and are not interested in the quality of life and/or civil security of a relevant population that they influence or coerce. Other forms of the irregular OPFOR can be rogue individuals with single-issue agendas who are willing to use criminal activity and/or terrorism in order to achieve their objective.

Adaptability

The irregular OPFOR is constantly adapting its capabilities in an agile and flexible manner to achieve its objectives. These capabilities include improvements in organization, equipment, and tactics. The irregular OPFOR can readily task-organize for a particular action. It tailors actions to support a compelling agenda that resonates with a relevant population for active and/or passive support. It makes adjustments when it gains or loses affiliated support or experiences degradation due to recent actions.

Irregular OPFOR actions are conducted as a continuum. Any pause in its operations is part of a coherent campaign of persistent conflict. A long-term perspective guides near- and mid-term actions to marshal capabilities for future actions. While one form of action may appear stalled, another form of action is likely underway against an enemy weakness. Protracted actions can change quickly if the irregular OPFOR observes unexpected enemy vulnerabilities.

The irregular OPFOR’s ability to quickly transition also gives it the agility and flexibility to—

  • Command, control, and/or influence various activities.
  • Task-organize its forces.
  • Deceive and surprise.
  • Disperse and concentrate.
  • Retain freedom of movement.
  • Apply physical and psychological techniques in order to create anxiety in an enemy.

This agility and flexibility is critical to how effectively the irregular OPFOR adapts its patterns of operations to maintain the initiative over an enemy. The irregular OPFOR perseveres in adversity by its ability to adapt.

FM 7-100.4 (to be converted to a TC) outlines the baseline organizations and equipment of insurgents, guerrillas, and criminals and provides general guidance on how these forces may task-organize for particular missions. This process of task-organizing and/or tailoring of forces is flexible to accommodate the particular mission and conditions in the OE.

Note. In order to achieve a desired level of capabilities, the irregular OPFOR order of battle or task-organized structure may require adjustments in types and numbers of weapons systems, other equipment, and personnel. If a particular piece of equipment in the organizational directories of the OPFOR administrative force structure in FM 7-100.4 is not appropriate for a specific OE, possible substitutions are identified in the Worldwide Equipment Guide.

Tactics

Insurgents and guerrillas, as part of the irregular OPFOR, may employ variants of the functional tactics outlined for smaller tactical units of the regular OPFOR in TC 7-100.2 (see chapter 7 of this TC). Criminal elements do not normally have the ability to execute these functional tactics.

All three types of forces that make up the irregular OPFOR can employ terrorism as a tactic in order to achieve their aims. (For actions typical of criminals, see chapter 4. For more detail on terrorism, see chapter 6.)

Interactions of Operational Variables

The irregular OPFOR is part of the military variable, which explores the military and/or paramilitary capabilities of all relevant actors (enemy, friendly, and neutral) in a given OE. However, irregular OPFOR actions can affect or be affected by all the operational variables: political, military, economic, social, information, infrastructure, physical environment, and time (PMESII-PT) and their subvariables. The impacts may be robust, moderate, or relatively insignificant. The interaction of the operational variables and subvariables establishes conditions for various levels of irregular OPFOR capabilities and limitations. The dynamic interaction and effects by the irregular OPFOR on operational variables are a physical and psychological combat multiplier for the OPFOR. The following paragraphs discuss the impacts of the irregular OPFOR on each of the operational variables. They also provide examples of how the actions of one variable can directly or indirectly impact on other variables and affect the capabilities and influence of the irregular OPFOR.

Political

The centers of responsibility and power at various levels of governance can be an objective for irregular OPFOR subversion or violent action. The irregular OPFOR may target for willing or coerced support of its aims—

  • Constituted authorities at local, provincial, and/or state levels.
  • Tribal leaders and/or clan chiefs.
  • Religious leaders and councils.
  • Influential political organizations.

The irregular OPFOR may want to institute its own political goals for the perceived benefit of a relevant population, or to create chaos within a governing authority in order create a protected geographic enclave within a sovereign state. In either case, influence over a relevant population is essential. Given enough electoral support in a relevant population, the irregular OPFOR may be able to win formal political recognition at varied levels of a governing authority that it opposes.

Conditions of the political variable would very likely interact with social and economic conditions of an OE. The political aim of the irregular OPFOR could have a genuine intent to provide a voice in politics to an under-represented relevant population, or be self-serving in order to obtain control of political institutions for its own commercial profit. It may start as the former and transition into the latter. An example of this transition could be if the irregular OPFOR emerged from an indigenous population of rural farmers and tenants with grievances against absentee landowners and corporate businesses. However, over time, the irregular OPFOR might shift its focus to commercial profit in racketeering and the production, and distribution of illegal drugs to a transnational market.

Military

The irregular OPFOR can infiltrate regular military and/or paramilitary forces of an enemy governing authority. It can collect intelligence on military unit strengths and weaknesses, unit leader preferences and biases, and/or readiness of weapons, support, and materiel. Covert actions by irregular OPFOR members can undermine the effectiveness of enemy units by—

  • Raising doubts about the validity of enemy unit missions.
  • Subverting leader and subordinate allegiances.
  • Questioning the general treatment of military and/or paramilitary members by the governing authority.

With military training, weapons and equipment stolen or purchased by the irregular OPFOR can be used more effectively to improve its armed capabilities. In some cases, the irregular OPFOR may attempt to transition highly trained irregular forces into a more formalized paramilitary or security force in order to demonstrate its ability.

An example of interaction of military and information variables could be a media campaign directed at a local, regional, and transnational audience, in which the irregular OPFOR uses the symbols and appearance commonly associated with military power and influence. The irregular OPFOR could use progressive success in establishing and protecting a geographic safe haven with a declaration of sovereignty. Announcements to a global information network could display senior irregular OPFOR leaders in military uniform and attire, speaking publicly with official banners or flags, and maps or images of territory declared as independent. A focused defense of the safe haven, assisted by an extensive and supportive diaspora could achieve irregular OPFOR objectives unless challenged by an enemy governing authority.

Economic

The economic effectiveness and prosperity of a governing authority can be marginalized with black market activities coordinated by the irregular OPFOR. Criminal activities can include smuggling, theft, and/or piracy of marketable goods. Insurgent or guerrilla actions can include disrupting the flow of commerce throughout the economic chain of production, distribution, and consumption by the general populace. The irregular OPFOR, in some instances, can become the illicit commercial broker for what transactions occur in an economic sector. Front companies and/or organizations can launder resources and money into legitimate enterprises in support of irregular OPFOR objectives.

An example of interaction between economic, infrastructure, and information variables could be when the irregular OPFOR can deliver a satisfactory level of livelihood, health care, and commercial advancement for a relevant population. The population may have been denied access to such expectations by transnational corporations and a governing authority that extract natural resources from the region for their own profit and exclusive use. The grievance of this economic poverty can result in irregular OPFOR actions such as sabotage of pipelines, disruption of refining facilities, kidnapping of corporate officials, and/or random acts of murder. The irregular OPFOR can use a media campaign aligned with the economic grievances of the relevant population to emphasize the validity of OPFOR offensive actions. For example, it could call attention to the presence of significant private security contractors of transnational corporations and regular military forces of a governing authority conducting business security actions and military operations for their own financial gain.

Social

Cultural, religious, and ethnic differences can be stress points within a population that the irregular OPFOR can incite with real or false claims to further fracture a society and its social institutions. Unsettled grievances based on traditional values and customs can range from dissatisfaction to violent demonstrations against issues such as human rights, educational opportunities, and/or social mobility. The irregular OPFOR can nurture the support of particular social and religious leaders of a community that align themselves with OPFOR initiatives. Civic improvement associations and social welfare projects administered by the irregular OPFOR focused on a relevant population can be part of a comprehensive social unity program.

An example of interaction of the social and information variables could be the compelling influence that a cleric or advisory council of clerics can have on a relevant population. Religious leaders may have traditional authority in a culture that recognizes such an overarching authority. Based on that perceived authority, the directives and prohibitions of that cleric or council can direct popular support of the irregular OPFOR or civil disobedience to a governing political authority.

Information

Public communications by the irregular OPFOR can promote its own message with perception management and also discredit programs of the enemy governing authority. Open source and human intelligence collection operations can improve the irregular OPFOR awareness of enemy weaknesses. Information warfare (INFOWAR) by the irregular OPFOR can deceive, destroy, or sabotage enemy communication infrastructure. Examples of irregular OPFOR INFOWAR activities include blogs on the Internet, publicizing incidents of alleged abuse by a governing authority in global news media, and/or recurring presentations by charismatic individuals in social, political, educational, and religious institutions.

Another example of how the interaction of variables can cause significant impacts on irregular OPFOR operations is the way the physical environment can influence the transmission and flow of irregular OPFOR information and intelligence. In a rural setting, the irregular OPFOR may use normal commercial transportation means of porters and mule trains. In an urban setting, it may use vendors and daily routes of commercial goods. Thus, in either setting, sophisticated electronic monitoring capabilities by an enemy of the irregular OPFOR may become insignificant. The irregular OPFOR can manipulate the global information environment by using the Internet to encrypt and/or hide messages in innocent appearing electronic communications. Verbal or electronic communications of a relevant population can be stifled by irregular OPFOR threats and/or coercion when such information negatively affects its operations in an area. Public claims of responsibility for acts of terror by the irregular OPFOR can further reduce overt support of a relevant population to an enemy of the irregular OPFOR.

Note. The information variable is discussed in more detail in appendix A, which describes the elements of the irregular OPFOR’s INFOWAR.

Infrastructure

The irregular OPFOR can cause immediate, progressive, and long-term effects on of basic facilities, services, and operational installations that provide the infrastructure for a community or society. Immediate impacts can be the disruption of a sole-source oil pipeline and/or the destruction of a main electrical power generation facility. Progressive acts to disrupt and cause long-term impacts can be the mining of regional motor transportation routes with improvised explosive devices and recurring ambushes of commercial and military convoys. From a more positive perspective, the irregular OPFOR could provide basic civil services not being provided by a governing authority such as potable water and/or basic medical care.

Irregular OPFOR actions can include calculated disruption or destruction activities to limit enemy capabilities and/or convince a relevant population that the enemy is incapable of protecting them and providing adequate public or private services. The irregular OPFOR may choose to—

  • Attack public utilities or the civil servants who service such utilities.
  • Prevent delivery of commodities that sustain performance of public services.
  • Interdict services such as motor transportation, urban construction and repair.
  • Disrupt implementation of farming initiatives hosted by an enemy governing authority.

Physical Environment

The irregular OPFOR can optimize the geography and/or manmade structures of a physical environment by using restrictive rural terrain or dense urban communities to mask complex battle positions and safe havens. Terrain, weather, climate, and vegetation can support the concealment and/or cover of irregular OPFOR staging and conduct of operations. The growth of poor and underemployed populations in many large metropolitan areas, and the increase of some cities to a status of megalopolis are prime conditions to create grievances that can be manipulated by the irregular OPFOR.

An example of interaction among variables could be the impact of a governing authority’s land reforms that adversely affect the immediate prosperity of a local or regional population. This could include a directed destruction of one type of farming crop on limited usable terrain, and a replacement crop that does not provide the same economic value to the farmer or local distributor. This situation can be part of INFOWAR, with the irregular OPFOR promoting a story of how the governing authority it to blame for these negative impacts.

Time

Time can be a combat multiplier for the irregular OPFOR when the cultural perception of time accepts a protracted conflict. During such a protracted conflict, the irregular OPFOR can use violent actions, INFOWAR, diplomatic discussions, economic pressures, and progressive representations of value- added for a relevant population. Timing and duration of activities, events, or conditions, as well as how the timing and duration are perceived by various actors in the OE, can prevent or delay governing authority activities in favor of irregular OPFOR aims.

The irregular OPFOR seeks to chose the time and place for engaging the enemy. Timing can be the most significant aspect of determining when to tactically execute a decision to delay, deceive, fix, and/or block. Timeliness of information and intelligence is another key aspect that the irregular OPFOR uses to its own advantage. In order to affect enemy pace, tempo, and/or speed of action and reaction, the irregular OPFOR may plant false information at a particular time and ensure that an enemy obtains it. The prudent use of time is often combined with characteristics of a physical environment to create opportunities in support of near-, mid-, and/or long-term objectives.

Principles

The fundamental principles of the irregular OPFOR guide organizational and individual actions. Regardless of whether the organization is military-like in appearance and operations, or includes elements that are loosely affiliated with the irregular OPFOR in a political, social, or economic sector of a society, these principles provide a common framework of how the irregular OPFOR plans and conducts actions. Since the irregular OPFOR often resembles military forces in many ways, some of these principles are very similar to fundamental military principles in the regular OPFOR. In some cases, however, the principles are tailored in consideration of irregular OPFOR capabilities or limitations. Depending on the type of irregular OPFOR organization and its goals and motivations, the irregular OPFOR adapts the following principles to address particular situations. Figure 1-1 on page 1-8 shows how each of the principles interrelate and contribute toward achieving an irregular OPFOR objective. That objective typically relates to a particular grievance on the part of the irregular OPFOR or of a relevant population it seeks to influence.

Initiative

Initiative is the ability of the irregular OPFOR to retain a freedom of action in its plans and operations. Initiative enables the irregular OPFOR to force an enemy to react to its actions. Success often goes to the side that conducts itself more actively and resolutely. Irregular OPFOR leaders encourage initiative to make and implement bold decisions in order to establish or change the terms of the irregular conflict in favor of the irregular OPFOR. Subordinates are expected to take advantage of new developments immediately. They seek to overcome a position of relative inferiority while operating within a senior OPFOR leader’s intentions. Initiative exploits an enemy’s restrictive rules of engagement or political restrictions.

Figure 1-1. Relation of irregular OPFOR principles to achieving the objective
Figure 1-1. Relation of irregular OPFOR principles to achieving the objective

Deception

Deception is the ability to deliberately convey a false and/or distorted picture of the situation to an enemy leader that is targeted for deception. Deceptive information causes an enemy leader to believe he has accurate situational awareness and understanding. Irregular OPFOR leaders plan and direct deception that helps them accomplish their objective, but does not hamper other concurrent OPFOR actions. Feints and demonstrations are examples of deception. Other elements of INFOWAR attempt to optimize the effects of deception in tactics and techniques. Various irregular OPFOR capabilities and actions can lead to a compelling yet inaccurate analysis by the enemy leader. These means of deception, not limited by domestic or international law and conventions, can include the following:

  • Physical activity or lack of activity.
  • Technical resources and employment techniques indicative of a particular tactic.
  • Administrative indicators such as visual, oral, or documentary evidence in order to manipulate and distort reality.

Surprise

Surprise is the ability of the irregular OPFOR to take advantage of an enemy vulnerability in a manner for which an enemy is unprepared or unable to effectively counter. Irregular OPFOR action is normally swift and fleeting and may employ unexpected means. The irregular OPFOR attempts to shape a setting so that an enemy is not expecting the action or create conditions that an enemy is not prepared to confront. The irregular OPFOR achieves surprise through deception activities in conjunction with protection and security measures and/or other elements of INFOWAR. Surprise can be achieved by means such as the following:

  • Changing tactics, techniques, or the intensity of actions against an enemy.
  • Employing commercial or industrial materiel as a weapon in unexpected ways.
  • Presenting public indications of compromise or cessation of armed conflict. For example, the irregular OPFOR may agree to a truce and series of negotiations with an enemy, but use the time to prepare and stage for nearly simultaneous surprise attacks on military and civil government facilities.

Protection

Protection is the ability to preserve irregular OPFOR effectiveness of its organizational assets and capabilities. These assets and capabilities include OPFOR personnel, equipment, weapon systems, operations, information, facilities, and/or infrastructure. Protection involves a continuous, integrated series and/or group of measures that sustain the ability for the irregular OPFOR to plan, prepare, and conduct successful actions. Protection and security measures are a key element in INFOWAR (see appendix A). The irregular OPFOR normally operates with a minimal or unidentifiable signature within a relevant population in order to avoid being a lucrative target. Protection complements the use of a safe haven, when required, to refit or reconstitute irregular OPFOR combat power. An example of protection is an irregular OPFOR guerrilla unit exfiltrating from a raid in hostile territory to a secure location in a neighboring state. This unofficial support by a state near the area of OPFOR actions provides security and protection to the guerrilla unit while it recruits and trains replacements due to casualties incurred in the raid.

Mobility

Mobility is the ability to sustain irregular OPFOR freedom of movement within areas controlled or occupied by the enemy. The irregular OPFOR seeks to create an advantage over the enemy regarding knowledge and use of geographic terrain and populations in order to position, reposition, and/or prepare for and conduct effective actions. A high degree of mobility enables the irregular OPFOR to use available combat power with maximum effect at a decisive time and place. For example, the irregular OPFOR can blend into a population with similar clothing and daily habits in order to maintain anonymity while transiting an area or region. This type of mobility can allow the timely supply of weapons and materiel, fiscal resources, and/or manpower for designated actions in an area or region.

Adaptability

Adaptability is the ability of the irregular OPFOR to use initiative and creative thinking in order to set particular conditions and take advantage of the resulting opportunities. Irregular OPFOR leaders recognize emergent developments that change existing conditions, and apply initiative that causes the enemy to react at a disadvantage to the actions of the irregular OPFOR. Simple tactics and techniques can be adapted for use against an enemy’s sophisticated technology and weapon systems. For example, a system of couriers can negate the intrusive ability of electronic monitoring devices to detect and locate the financial transaction networks of a local insurgent organization that were formerly conducted with cellular telephones. Conversely, the irregular OPFOR can adapt to sophisticated techniques such as encrypting and hiding information within harmless appearing communiqués such as electronic files, images, and documents transiting the Internet.

Concentration

Concentration is the ability of the irregular OPFOR to mass the capabilities of combat power in time and space, in order to achieve a desired effect. Concentration of effort allows the irregular OPFOR to create and dominate a condition for a specific amount of time. When the irregular OPFOR concentrates rapidly or gradually from dispersed locations to conduct a particular action, a normal subsequent action is to quickly disperse in order to avoid an effective enemy response against the massed OPFOR. An example of concentration is the coordination to quickly mass irregular OPFOR insurgent cells, and use a swarming technique in a raid to overwhelm a designated target at an isolated combat outpost. Once insurgents have seized the objective and secured or destroyed designated weapons, equipment, and documents, the cells quickly disperse into the countryside or urban areas in order to avoid capture or death.

Perseverance

Perseverance demonstrates the will of the irregular OPFOR to persist in long-term commitment to fight an enemy until it accomplishes its goals and objective. Protracted and persistent operations are the norm of the irregular OPFOR. Actions may be subtle and can be part of a gradual series of actions toward achieving a task. Dramatic individual actions are often used to establish or sustain notoriety for the irregular OPFOR, but rarely achieve a decisive effect. Periodic setbacks in irregular OPFOR missions are anticipated and rationalized with effective INFOWAR announcements to sustain a moral dominance of the irregular OPFOR over an enemy. INFOWAR techniques can also convince a relevant population to sustain support of the irregular OPFOR even though its actions may require an extended period of time before the population eventually benefits. The irregular OPFOR may attempt to achieve its objectives within a specified timetable and announced milestones; however, the objectives may take decades or generations to achieve.

Motivations

Insurgents and guerrillas are normally motivated by social, religious, or political issues or some combination of those. In most cases, criminals—whether they are part of the irregular OPFOR or not— have other motivations. Although individual actors who conduct criminal activity may not be part of the irregular OPFOR, the individual’s personal motivation and/or ideology may be the deciding perspective of why he or she acts.

Note. The local populace may provide active or passive support out of a different motivation than the insurgents or guerrillas they support. For example, the motivation of the populace might be financial (payment or beneficial effects on business profits) or security provided them. The populace might provide support, based on ethnic or religious issues, to an insurgent or guerrilla organization even if they do not share that organization’s political agenda.

Insurgents or Guerrillas

Certain types of motivation are common to insurgents and guerrillas, the two most likely components of the irregular OPFOR. However, insurgents and guerrillas that agree to collaborate against a common enemy may or may not share the same motivations or ideology.

Note. If multiple insurgent and/or guerrilla organizations exist in a particular OE, they may share some motivations but differ in others. In order to form an affiliated relationship, the organizations just need to have one or more motivations that coincide with or complement each other. An example of a coinciding motivation could be that both organizations resent the presence of an extraregional force in their country. An example of a complementary relationship would be if one organization has financial resources, while the other needs financial support.

The motivation that incites violent as well as nonviolent actions by the irregular OPFOR is often framed in the context of ideology. The irregular OPFOR acts in a particular way based on underlying grievances, which are often linked to the ideals of an ideology. These unresolved grievances—perceived or factual—create conditions where armed and unarmed individuals believe they must act to obtain what they believe is a just solution. The rationale and the resulting actions may be perceived in a positive and negative light by a relevant population. The motivation and rationale typically are one or more of the following:

  • Personal or group social identity.
  • Devotion to a particular religious belief.
  • Commitment to a form of political governance.

Combinations among these factors can further complicate how to describe the motivation and ideology of a particular person or group. Other motivations exist and may become a primary prompt for action, though only loosely associated with a social, religious, or political agenda. Aspects of ethnicity, geography, and history affect personal and group relationships as witnessed in social status and networks, religion, and politics. Combinations can occur among these factors to further complicate how to describe the motivation of a particular person or group.

Social Identity

Social identity, as an individual and/or as a member of a social group, is often a fundamental aspect of why people may be aligned with or alienated from the irregular OPFOR. They may be attracted by an ability to satisfy a perceived critical want or need in their lifestyle. Allegiance to a clan, tribe, or familial grouping is an example of social identity and accountability. These forms of social allegiance can indicate why change is desired or required in a social order. The same rationales can support why a set of ideals or practices must be sustained or expanded within a relevant population. Several common categories of social identity that can overlap with religious or political agendas are as follows:

  • Ethnocentric groups who understand race or ethnicity as the defining characteristic of a society and basis of cohesion.
  • Nationalistic groups who promote cultural-national consciousness and perhaps establishment of a separate nation-state.
  • Revolutionary groups who are dedicated to the overthrow of a governing authority and establishment of a new social order.
  • Separatist groups who demand independence from an existing governance that appears socially, theologically, or politically unjust to a relevant population.

A variation on these identity categories is an independent actor who conceives, plans, and conducts violent or nonviolent actions without any direction from another person or irregular force. This type of individual may be sympathetic to the aims of a particular group, but have no contact with the group or affiliated members of the group.

Religion

Religion can be a compelling motivation. As a personal belief, religion can be interpreted as divine edict and infallible. Practice of a faith system is a personal interpretation and decision. However, fundamentalist clerics and/or religious mentors in some instances can interpret passages of religious doctrine in a particular way that supports the irregular OPFOR agenda. Some interpretations may be a purposeful misrepresentation never intended by an original religious author. Other clerics or radical splinter groups may honestly believe in a religious duty to pursue a fundamentalist approach to worship and lifestyle. In either case, religion can be used as a catalyst to instigate rivalry between and among ethnic and/or religious denominational groups. Confrontations can be provoked by faith system practices that are completely unacceptable to another faith group and/or can create an irreconcilable theological wedge between cultural-faith groups in a relevant population.

The irregular OPFOR may attempt to link religion with declarations that governing political authorities who do not accept a particular understanding of a faith doctrine are a wicked secular presence that must be destroyed and replaced with a fundamentalist theocracy form of governance. Cults, although not a religion by normal definition, can adopt similar forms of violence, mass murder, and mayhem as part of a self-proclaimed apocalyptic vision and purpose.

Politics

The irregular OPFOR, especially the insurgent part, can have a political agenda. Prevalent political systems that can be promoted by the irregular OPFOR include forms of governance such as—

  • Single-party totalitarian state.
  • Nationalist-fascist authority.
  • Leadership appointed or democratically elected by popular vote.
  • Social self-management and equality aimed at reducing or eliminating political and economic hierarchies.
  • Social-political process that evolves toward a classless-stateless society with common ownership on means of production, communal access to commodities for livelihood, and general social programs for the benefit of community and human wellness.
  • Pseudo-social and political authority that protects a geographic sanctuary and/or safe haven for conduct of an illicit commercial enterprise.

The irregular OPFOR can use motivations of a political ideology to attract the attention of a relevant population in order to develop influence with a particular community. This can lead to support and/or collaboration or actually joining the irregular OPFOR. Since politics are integral to the overarching conditions that affect daily life, commerce, vocation, freedoms, and family, the irregular OPFOR can use political influence—along with social and/or religious appeal—to enhance its legitimacy. Visible actions, often localized in perspective, focus on demonstrating power and authority.

Criminals

Although actors who conduct criminal activities may not be insurgents or guerrillas, personal motivation and/or ideology may be a deciding factor in their decision to join the irregular OPFOR voluntarily or be coerced to participate. Criminals who become part of the irregular OPFOR may or may not share some of the same motivations as other parts of the OPFOR. Regardless of their social identity and religious or political preferences, criminals are motivated primarily by money. (See chapter 4 for more detail on the motivations of criminals and criminal organizations.)

Support

Support for irregular OPFOR activities includes capabilities provided by individuals and organizations internal and external to the geographic area. Multiple forms of support can be voluntary and/or coerced from individuals, selected segments of a population, or activities and organizations with particular capabilities. Affiliation with and/or among organizations indicates a common goal. However, affiliation is not a formal association and subordination among participants. Support relationships are often temporary and remain in effect only as long as the benefits of cooperation are mutual to the involved organizations.

Internal

Internal support includes the ideological and practical means to improve and/or sustain irregular OPFOR operations. Insurgents or guerrillas seek to ally and affiliate with activities and people that range from specific commodities and/or functional skills to networks of political, commercial, religious, and/or social groups with required capabilities. Internal support indicates the commitment of leaders, active supporters, and passive supporters to further the progress of the irregular OPFOR. As conditions change in geographic, political, cultural, cyberspace, and/or ideological environments, the coordination of internal support adjusts to accommodate emergent opportunities.

External

External support is not always necessary for the irregular OPFOR to succeed. However, some form of external support is usually critical to sustain long-term operations. Activities and organizations often provide external support for ideological reasons, but other motivations can include political power, commercial enterprise, financial wealth, and/or some common grievance affecting a relevant population. The motivations that incite the irregular OPFOR affect how and why support is obtained. Whether support is voluntary or coerced, the rationale of why support is necessary reflects how discrete aspects of assistance improve a cumulative capability.

Prominent categories of support are moral, money, and materiel. The morality of supporting the irregular OPFOR links an ideology to an outcome of desired conditions by a relevant population. Money enables the irregular OPFOR to acquire capabilities required in order to enhance its influence not only in a paramilitary sense, but also across a full spectrum of operational variables in an OE. Materiel support indicates the provision of equipment, supplies, and operating systems used by the irregular OPFOR and/or its supporters. Materiel requires training, maintenance, and recurring systems improvement. These capabilities suggest the need for trainers, advisors, and/or liaison personnel to support the irregular OPFOR. To accomplish these actions, a safe haven or sanctuary allows a freedom of action in planning, preparing, and staging for overt and covert operations. Three main types of external support are diaspora support, state support, and non-state support.

Diaspora

A diaspora is a relevant population that has voluntarily moved or migrated, and/or been forcefully displaced from an established or ancestral homeland. However, they still have racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic, and/or cultural affinities with inhabitants of that homeland. Motives for support from a diaspora can include ethnocentric, separatist, and/or nationalistic. A fundamental objective is to correct proven or perceived injustices to a group of people in a larger community and relevant population. This type of support is often linked to a common social, religious, and/or political identity.

Voluntary support from a diaspora is a preferred method for assistance to the irregular OPFOR. However, compelling the support from segments of a diaspora may be required at times to ensure the amount of general or specialized support required to sustain operations. Compelling support from a diaspora is a calculated risk that is closely monitored by irregular OPFOR senior leaders in order to not alienate a significant portion of the relevant population.

Beyond aspects such as financial and materiel contributions, the expansion of support through INFOWAR with and for a diaspora can sway public opinion and obtain continuing extraregional and international support for the struggle of the irregular OPFOR. In the spotlight of globalized media, a diaspora usually accents the moral correctness of resolving proven or perceived injustices to a group of people in a relevant population of the particular geographic region or state.

External State

Support from an external state for the irregular OPFOR can be covert and/or overt. A state acts primarily based on its political objectives. Political, economic, social, fiscal, moral, and/or logistics support can be provided while disavowing any direct connection to the irregular OPFOR. For example, a state may condemn an adversary state for repressing a relevant population while covertly providing arms, ammunition, sanctuary, training bases, and/or advise and other forms of assistance.

A state might employ SPF and/or covert agents of the state to conduct direct actions in support of the irregular OPFOR. The state officially denies responsibility or state sponsorship for such activities, but can engage in unofficial INFOWAR releases that indicate support for specified actions within the insurgency. In other situations, a state may openly declare a legal or moral right to intervene in the affairs of another state and support designated insurgent organizations and their affiliates. States may form a coalition to condemn the acts of a governing authority and announce support for irregular OPFOR actions.

A state can act overtly by providing supplies, training, and other forms of support to the irregular OPFOR. This support can be coordinated and provided without any specified control over an insurgent or guerrilla organization by the state. Other options can exist where stipulations are mutually agreed upon between representatives of the state and irregular OPFOR leaders in exchange for materiel and/or a safe haven or protected staging area for operations. Other means of support can include—

  • Access to training facilities and expertise not otherwise readily available to the irregular OPFOR.
  • Extension of diplomatic protections and services such as immunity from extradition.
  • Use of embassies and other protected grounds.
  • Use of diplomatic pouches to transport weapons or explosives.
  • False documentation for personal identification and movements throughout geographic regions and states.

States in a coalition or as members of an international organization may decide to intervene directly in an insurgency with diplomatic envoys, observation teams, and/or military forces. A coalition may form to condemn the acts of a governing authority and announce support for irregular OPFOR actions. The irregular OPFOR insurgent organization leaders and coalition authorities can mutually agree to—

  • Seek conditions for justice and respect arising from international treaties and other sources of international law.
  • Promote social progress, economic advancement of indigenous people.
  • Maintain international stability and security.

Non-State

Forms of non-state support can range from non-state transnational networks with global reach capability to individuals with a special or unique capability. These forms of support can be overt and/or covert. Networks can be regional or international in their aims, and/or individuals committed to a single- issue agenda. Whether support involves a type of network, hierarchical organization, or loosely coordinated individuals, non-state support to an insurgency or independent guerrilla operations often includes sophisticated criminal activities in foreign and/or indigenous environments.

Insurgencies may turn to transnational criminal organizations for funding. Other globalized capabilities can provide advanced knowledge and technology exchanges, mobile international transportation, and near-instantaneous cyber communication. Non-state support exchanges in capabilities can occur directly and indirectly.

Transnational economic entities such as international business corporations may provide support to irregular OPFOR operations in order to further their corporate business interests. Other supervisory or workforce individuals in non-profit or private organizations may assist the irregular OPFOR based on personal beliefs and/or as the result of coercion or extortion. Individual financiers may provide support in order to advance personal agendas or cultural, ethnic, political, and/or religious causes.

External support from other parts of the irregular OPFOR and/or in conjunction with regular military forces can include an exchange of personnel and equipment, as well as intelligence, training, recruitment, logistics, and finances. In addition to individual and contracted mercenaries, a significant body of other independent or loosely collaborative individuals may be available for hire to an irregular OPFOR organization. These personnel may have served previously in guerrilla units or regular military units.

Blurring of Categories

Although three basic types of forces can be part of the irregular OPFOR, the distinctions among insurgents, guerrillas, and criminals are sometimes blurred. That is because they may have more in common than they have that is different. From the viewpoint of the existing government authority, for instance, the activities of all three types are illegal, that is, criminal. Not just criminals but also insurgents and guerrillas can engage in criminal activities. Some insurgent organizations can include guerrilla units (developed from within or affiliated) and some guerrilla units may be part of an insurgency. In advanced phases of an insurgency, guerrilla units may begin to look and act more like regular military units.

There are three general tactics available to the irregular OPFOR—

  • Military-like functional tactics.
  • Criminal activity.
  • Terrorism.

At any given time, the irregular OPFOR could use any of these means. The differences among these three can become blurred, especially within an urban environment or where the governing authority exerts strong control.

Insurgents and Guerrillas

As an insurgent organization grows, its cellular structure or parts thereof may develop into a more hierarchical military-like structure. Within an insurgent organization, direct action cells may combine to form guerrilla squads and platoons. In some cases, a platoon or company may retain some direct action cells (possibly for terror tactics). Other specialized cells of an insurgent organization can evolve into parts of—

  • Supporting units of a guerrilla company, battalion, or brigade.
  • Staff elements of a guerrilla battalion or brigade.

Guerrillas may engage in more military-like operations after an insurgency develops extensive popular and logistics support. When they feel the conditions are set, insurgents may generate a conventional military force that can directly confront regular forces of the existing governing authority.

Insurgents and Criminals

There is often a nexus between insurgency and crime. Sustainment requirements, especially funding, often drive insurgents into relationships with organized crime or into criminal activity themselves. Insurgents may turn to local, regional, or transnational criminal elements for funding. Cooperating with criminals may not be ideologically consistent with the movement’s core beliefs, although that does not necessarily prevent such cooperation.

An insurgent organization itself may engage in criminal activities as a source of funding. Income is essential not only for insurgents to purchase weapons but also to pay recruits and bribe corrupt officials. Reaping windfall profits and avoiding the costs and difficulties involved in securing external support makes illegal activity attractive to insurgents. Kidnapping, extortion, robbery, and trafficking (drug, human, black market goods, and so on)—four favorite insurgent activities—are very lucrative, although they can also alienate the population.

Insurgents may use coercive force to gain power over the population. Examples of organizations providing such force are insurgent direct action cells, guerrilla units, gangs, and organized crime elements. Such groups may use their coercive means for a variety of purposes unrelated to the insurgency. Protecting their community members, carrying out vendettas, and engaging in criminal activities are examples. Insurgent organizations may also attract followers through criminal activities that provide income.

Insurgencies attract criminals and mercenaries. Fighters who joined for money will probably become bandits once the fighting ends and may engage in criminal activity during the fighting. This category includes opportunists who exploit the absence of governing authority security and law enforcement to engage in economically lucrative criminal activity, such as kidnapping, smuggling, or theft.

Some insurgencies can compartmentalize criminal activity, keeping it ancillary to the main effort and preventing it from affecting the organization and its unity. However, some insurgencies can become focused on criminal activity that once only served as a funding mechanism. Some insurgent cell leaders may become crime bosses. The insurgency as a whole may degenerate into criminality, particularly if the primary movement disintegrates and the remaining elements are cast adrift. Such disintegration replaces an ideologically inspired body of individuals with a more diverse body, normally of very uneven character.

Even when criminal networks are not a part of an insurgency, their activities—for example, banditry, hijackings, kidnappings, and smuggling—can further undermine the governing authority. Insurgent organizations often link themselves to criminal networks to obtain funding and logistics support. In some cases, insurgent networks and criminal networks become indistinguishable. Most insurgent groups are more similar to organized crime in their organizational structure and relations with the populace than they are to military units.

Regular and Irregular OPFOR

There can also be some blurring between the irregular OPFOR and regular OPFOR military units. Both types of forces can use many of the same functional tactics (such as assault, ambush, and raid).

The regular OPFOR, especially SPF, may use terror tactics similar to those of the irregular OPFOR. Since SPF may or may not be in uniform, they may be hard to distinguish from irregular OPFOR insurgents or guerrillas, for which they often serve as trainers or advisors and alongside which they may fight.

Comparison and Contrast

Within the irregular OPFOR, guerrilla units, insurgent organizations, and criminal organizations have various capabilities and limitations. Table 1-1 on pages 1-16 through 1-18 compares and contrasts the basic characteristics of the three types of forces in order to highlight their similarities and their differences.

Comparison and Contrast of Insurgents, Guerrillas, and Criminals
Characteristic Insurgent Organization Guerrilla Unit Criminal Organization
Leadership Network is typical, but can include hierarchical sub- organizations; leaders may be located distant from the geographic area of conflict; political or ideological mentors or council advisors and/or counsel senior leaders. Title for personnel in command is usually “leader.” Some leaders may use a religious, historical, or honorific title. Hierarchical with military-like chain of command and control or support systems; leaders predominantly indigenous; political advisors may accompany guerrilla units in actions. Leader titles are military in nature such as battalion and/or company commander, platoon leader, section leader, team leader, hunter-killer group leader. Hierarchical structure or network dependent on origin of organization; even in small criminal organizations, leaders may be located distant from the geographic area of conflict; political or ideological mentors or council advise and/or counsel senior leaders. Leader titles can be traditional or historical terms, or simple authority terms.
Motivation Insurgency movement with a political and/or ideological agenda. Can also be social identity or religion. Social identity, religion, or politics. Can be military component to an insurgency; or can be independent of an insurgency with a specified agenda. Intention to profit fiscally through control of a process, commodity, and/or area; social identity as a power broker in a designated geographic, economic, or social environment.
Organization Cellular-network model; can be hierarchical for designated capabilities or functions; can include paramilitary capability for a primarily political- oriented organization; can be affiliated with other irregular OPFOR and/or regular military forces. Military unit model with echelons of command and control; can include land, sea, and air capabilities; can be affiliated with other irregular OPFOR and/or regular  military forces; more likely that other irregular OPFOR components to be closely integrated with regular military forces. Hierarchical structure or network dependent on origin of organization; general categories of gangs, large- scale syndicates, and transnational organizations; organizations can be based on family, ethnic, commodity, or specialized purpose. Can infiltrate or become affiliated with insurgent, guerrilla, or regular military forces.
Objectives Concessions from and/or defeat of a political opponent; ultimately, overthrow an enemy governing authority and replace governance with insurgent movement leadership; seek legitimacy as movement. Military mission success within a campaign in support of unit goals and desired end state; can be an independent and specified guerrilla unit agenda; can be the military capability in insurgent organization. Profit from activities and coercion; expand organizational influence within an area, regional, or transnational scope; preserve control of specified commodities, geographic areas, and/or services; avoid contact with governing authority.
Internal Support Active and passive support in local and larger area population; can have legitimate social-economic- political activities to mobilize civil support. Active and passive support by segments of a local area population for military-type capabilities; can expand support to regional area population. Active and passive support in local and larger area population; can use coercion to influence legitimate social- economic-political activities or individual support.
External Support Regional safe havens; Diaspora systems to promote insurgent movement in regional and/or international communities; can receive cooperation or assistance from regular forces, SPF, or state activities opposing the governing authority. Regional safe havens; can receive cooperation or assistance from regular military, SPF, or state activities opposing the governing authority in the area of guerrilla operations. Cooperative affiliations among gangs, large-scale syndicates, and/or transnational organizations can provide designated support and services; co- opted governing authority offices may also assist.
Activity Patterns Local, regional, provincial, and/or district activities with intention of obtaining support of relevant population; can be social, economic, diplomatic, political, and military activities. Military-like functional tactics as norm; can expand tactical actions into a military campaign focused in a geographic area. Local, regional, and/or transnational activities; random or systematic activity to sustain influence; specialized expertise can be part of functional business model of larger commercial enterprises.
Comparison and Contrast of Insurgents, Guerrillas, and Criminals (continued)
Characteristic Insurgent Organization Guerrilla Unit Criminal Organization
Composition Higher insurgent organization and local insurgent organization; functional structure with cellular base; can receive assistance or support from SPF and/or regular military forces. Brigade to squad-team guerrilla units; can be tailored for specialized missions; can be supported by SPF advisors and/or regular forces advisors or liaison. Transnational organization, large-scale syndicates, and/or gangs; can be groups affiliated in temporary or long- term specific business arrangements.
Personnel Indigenous and/or transnational core; ideological mentor support network; rank and file members can be in a period of active service in the insurgent organization, or be authorized inactive status and return to familial-social responsibilities with their local population. Predominantly indigenous core; can include members outside of indigenous population; rank and file members typically remain in the same military unit with a long-term commitment of duty. Predominantly indigenous core, but can include members outside of indigenous population as organization expands in business connections; status may indicate familial or social lineage within organization; rank and file members may be specialized operators.
Recruitment Local, regional, or extraregional population recruiting; often relates to an ideological or faith system commitment to serve; can be contract support; can use conscription for limited lengths of time or seasonal terms of service. Local or regional population recruiting base; informal induction process with expectation of long-term or open-ended term of service; can use conscription from local population; require compliance with strict standards and discipline. Familial or social affiliations may be membership requirement; rank and file members may be contracted for skill sets; initiation rites and tests may precede acceptance; code of conduct may demand absolute allegiance to the organization.
Weapons and Other Equipment Tier 1-4 capabilities (see Worldwide Equipment Guide) dependent on support from insurgent region and diaspora; can receive clandestine support from states, private organizations, and/or criminal activities that oppose the governing authority in conflict with the insurgent organization. Tier 1-4 capabilities (see Worldwide Equipment Guide) dependent on access to local resources, or a higher and/or local insurgent organization if part of an insurgency; if independent, obtains weapons from raids, ambushes, and black market purchases; can include sophisticated systems and heavy weapon capabilities similar to regular military forces. Tier 1-4 capabilities (see Worldwide Equipment Guide) dependent on ability to purchase or procure weapons and/or materiel.
Uniforms Local attire of populace as norm; can wear military-like pieces of clothing and load- bearing equipment for designated direct actions. Varied military-like clothing or pieces of clothing, load- bearing equipment, and insignia as norm; can wear local attire of populace to facilitate mission. Attire of local populace as norm; can use civilian or law enforcement or paramilitary pieces of clothing and equipment in order to deceive.
Disposition Within political boundary of governing authority as norm; can be safe haven in or near contested territory; size and location of cells based on local conditions.

Rural and/or urban areas on mission basis; often occupy safe havens in populace, can locate as dispersed cells, and/or in CBP; can use social, economic, or political organizations as public and visible presence in populace.

Within enemy-held, hostile, or denied territory; can be safe haven in or near geographic area of contested territory; unit size, location, and command integrity based on local conditions.

Rural and/or urban areas on mission basis; often occupy safe haven and complex battle position (CBP) away from populace; can locate units in proximity to other guerrilla units for mutual support.

Within geographic area under organization control; can be safe haven in or near area involved in business transactions; size and location of organizational groupings based on local conditions.

Rural and/or urban on mission basis; often use protected locations in populace, can locate as dispersed groups; co-opted social, economic, or political organizations can prevent interference by law enforcement or internal security organizations.

Comparison and Contrast of Insurgents, Guerrillas, and Criminals (continued)
Characteristic Insurgent Organization Guerrilla Unit Criminal Organization
Training Functional skills in local or regional safe havens, or contract support for niche expertise; skills and services can include administrative, intelligence, direct actions, supply, transportation, communications, and/or special skill sets; can be augmented by SPF and/or regular military advisors. Basic and advanced military skills instructed in safe haven or CBP in or near geographic area of conflict. If part of insurgency, coordinates for special skills and support; can be augmented by SPF and/or regular military advisors. Basic and advanced skills learned in practice; special skills and support can be contracted; training can include administrative, intelligence, internal security, operational franchise management, supply and services, transportation, communications, and/or special skill sets.
Internal Security Counterintelligence and internal security cells monitor insurgent loyalty. Counterintelligence elements monitor guerrilla loyalty. Internal security maintained through codes of conduct and monitoring activities and outside contacts; specialized groups monitor member loyalty.
Logistics Self-sustaining with populace support; support from regional safe havens and diaspora; can receive regular military and SPF materiel support; can commandeer materiel from local area. Self-sustaining with populace support; can receive mission- based support from regular military forces and SPF; can barter and/or commandeer materiel from local area; can capture supplies and materiel from enemy forces. Self-sustaining with supply, services, and materiel purchased, stolen, or coerced from a local populace, or provided by a regional or transnational network; can be supported from regional safe havens.
Communications Local, regional, and/or global; easy access to media; access to Internet and INFOWAR technologies; secure and encryption capable; common use of messenger or courier. Local and regional; tactical communications norm; secure and encryption capable; access to Internet and INFOWAR technologies; common use of messenger or courier. Local, regional, and/or global; easy access to media; access to Internet and INFOWAR technologies; secure and encryption capable; common use of messenger or courier.
Finances Periodic reward in goods and services; may include contract-for-hire payment systems; can be obligation with no pay. Semiformal or formal pay system in local script and/or barter materiel; can be conscription with no pay. Payment to designated members based on performance and profit; payments may be cash, services, and or in-kind barter; investments and payments are often laundered to mask origin.
Terrorism Use or restriction of terrorism can be due to insurgent proclamation; psychological weapon; actions are integrated as part of INFOWAR campaign; purpose ultimately supports a political objective can be focused or random for effects. Use or restriction of terrorism based on guerrilla commander directive; psychological weapon; actions are integrated as part of INFOWAR campaign; can be deliberate or random for intended effects. Use or restriction of terrorism can be due to senior or intermediate leader decision; field operators may use terrorism within the domain they control; psychological weapon; actions can be focused or random for effects.
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