Infrastructure:Bothnia

We welcome your constructive feedback:(Right-click, "Open in new tab") Africa • Caucasus • Europe • Pacific • WEG • Force Structures

Using the DATE • TC 7-101 Exercise Design • Download

DATE Europe > Bothnia > Infrastructure:Bothnia ←You are here

Infrastructure Overview

Bothnia has a robust infrastructure following a 10‐year economic investment program, begun in 1985, with the assistance of Donovia to provide roads, railways and airports to enable swift movement of military assets. This program has built upon the numerous later Bothnian and Bothnia‐Otso joint Infrastructure projects. The national Infrastructure has also enhanced Bothnia’s economic distribution system. Notable among improvements over the past 30 years has been the construction and improvement of the ports that now ensure maximum access even during the coldest of winters.

Road transportation in Bothnia is the most popular method of transportation, especially in rural areas where the railway network does not cover. As of 2011 there are 39,524 km of public roads of which 19,630km are paved. The main road network comprises over 6,965 km of road. Approximately 64% of all traffic takes place on the main roads. Motorways have been constructed in the country since the 1960s but are still quite rare because the volumes are not large enough to motivate their construction. There are 663km of motorways.

The Bothnian railway network comprises 3,642km of broad gauge track of which 1187km is electrified. In 2010, passengers made 7.2 million long distance voyages and 35.4 million trips in local traffic. Over the same period 21 million tons of freight were transported. Bothnia and Otso share an extensive waterway network, the majority of which (approximately 70%) is located in Otso. However, Bothnia does possess a limited network of waterways in the interior of the country that were used to move goods and timber within the country until about the 1960s. Since then, road and rail transportation have dominated the commercial transportation of goods and the waterways are now primarily used for leisure. In addition, frequent ferry services connect Bothnia to Estonia, Framland and Torrike.

In domestic service, ferries connect Bothnia’s many islands to the mainland. Bothnia has an extensive airport network. The airports are also enhanced by a network of runways on main roads and are used for military purposes. There are 81 airfields 31 of which have paved runways and 12 of which are served by passenger flights. By far the largest airport is Brahea‐Vantaa Airport, and the second largest by passenger volume is Oulu Airport. Other international airports include Turku Airport and Tampere‐Pirkkala Airport. All Airports are owned and run by the State.

Brahea

Due to a lack of natural energy resources, Bothnia has been an early investor into alternative energy sources. With a centralized and subsidized investment program, the need for self‐sufficiency was increasingly emphasized during the 1990s. This included the development of the Tampere hydroelectric plant. However, Bothnia remains heavily dependent upon hydroelectric power supplies from Otso and fossil fuels from Donovia to meet its energy requirements. The heartland of Bothnia’s industry is centered on Tampere and the Brahea Metropolitan area and the maintenance of the rail and road infrastructure is a high priority in these areas.

Bothnia has a well‐structured telecommunication network with mobile phones towers throughout the country. In addition, a good cable network in the south of the country has achieved the need for a robust defensive C2 network.

Political Context. The overriding priority for the development of Bothnia’s infrastructure is defense. Economic factors and priorities are secondary. This reflects the overriding Bothnian approach to international affairs: it sees itself as an isolated haven of socialism surrounded by the corrupt and threatening European NATO states and allies and neutral states that cannot be relied upon.

Medical Facilities

See Social Variable, Human Rights / Universal Health Care paragraph.

Utilities Present

All Bothnian utilities are state owned and run. Bothnia possesses a mix of renewable, fossil fuel and nuclear power generation plants and has effective water and waste management structures. Bothnia possesses no domestic sources of fossil energy and must import substantial amounts of petroleum, natural gas and other energy resources, including uranium for nuclear power.

Power

BothOil (Bothnian Oil) is the sole oil refiner in Bothnia, exporting petroleum products such as gasoline and fuel oil to GBCC countries. Bothoil imports came from Donovia, Denmark, and the rest from UK, Kazakhstan, and Algeria. Petroleum comprises 24% of Bothnia energy consumption. Most of petroleum is used in vehicles but about 140,000 homes are heated by heating oil. Bothnia imports gas from Donovia. There is limited gas storage capacity. Natural gas has been used since 1974 after the first oil crisis. Additionally, coal is imported from a number of countries and approximately 3.96 million tons were used in 2007. Peat is the most popular energy source in Bothnia for new energy investments for their energy development program. The new energy plants in Bothnia starting 2005‐2015 have as energy sources peat (36%) and hard coal (11%). As of 2008, Bothnia’s nuclear power program has four nuclear reactors in two power plants. The first of these came into operation in 1977. In 2007 they provided 28.9% of electricity. They are among the world’s most efficient, with average capacity factors of 94% in the 1990s. A fifth nuclear reactor is under construction, scheduled to go online in 2014. Bothnia also has a number of renewable energy sources. These include; water, forest industry black liquor, other wood residues and Wind. Below is a list of Bothnian power stations by type.

Nuclear Power Stations in Bothnia

Name	Location	Type	Capacity MWe	Status
Lovlisa 1	Lovlisa	VVER	488	Operational
Lovlisa 2	Lovlisa	VVER	488	Operational
Okiliuoto 1	Okiliuoto	BWR	860	Operational
Okiliuoto 2	Okiliuoto	BWR	860	Operational
Okiliuoto 3	Okiliuoto	EPR	1600	Under construction

(VVER–Donovian Water‐Water Energetic Reactor; BWR–Boiling Water Reactor; EPR‐European Pressurized Reactor)

Fossil fuel power generation stations

Fossil Fuel Power Stations in Bothnia

Name	Location	Type	Capacity MWe	Status
Hanasaari Power Station	Brahea	Coal	220	Operational
Inkoo Power Station	Inga	Coal	1,000	Operational
Kellosaari Power Station	Brahea	Fuel oil	118	Operational
Kristiina Power Station	Kristinestad	Coal & fuel oil	450	Operational
Kymijarvi Power Station	Lahti	Coal, natural gas & biogas	200	Operational
Leilahti Power Station	Tampere	Natural gas	147	Operational
Martinlaakso Power Station	Vantaa	Coal & natural gas	195	Operational
Meri‐Pori Power Station	Pori	Coal	560	Operational
Naistenlahti Power Station	Naantali	Natural gas, peat, wood & fuel oil	189	Operational
Nokia Power Station	Tampere	Natural gas	70	Operational
Salmisaari Power Station	Brahea	Coal	160	Operational
Suomenoja Power Station	Espoo	Natural gas & coal	359	Operational
Tahkoluoto Power Station	Pori	Coal	235	Operational
Vaskiluoto Power Station	Vaasa	Coal & fuel oil	390	Operational
Vuosaari Power Station	Brahea	Natural gas	630	Operational

Biomass and Peat Power Stations in Bothnia

Name	Location	Type	Capacity MWe	Status
Alhomes Power Station	Jakobstad	Biomass & peat	265	Operational
Haapavesi Power Station	Haapavesi	Peat	154	Operational
Keljonlahti Power Station	Jyväskylä	Biomass & peat	209	Operational
Naistenlahti Power Station	Tampere	Natural gas, peat, wood & fuel oil	189	Operational
Raulalahti Power Station	Jyväskylä	Peat & wood	87	Operational
Seinäjoki Power Station	Seinäjoki	Peat & wood	120	Operational
Toppila Power Station	Oulu	Peat	190	Operational
Vanaja Power Station	Hämeenlinna	Biomass, peat & natural gas	54	Operational

.

Hydroelectric Power Stations in Bothnia

Name	Location	Type	Capacity MWe	Status
Petäjäskoski Dam	Rovaniemi	Hydroelectric	154	Operational
Taivalkoski Dam	Keminmaa	Hydroelectric	133	Operational

Details on Bothnian energy economic factors are in the Economics variable.

Water

Owing to the importance of water issues in Bothnia, there is a long tradition of state administration in this sector. In 1970 an attempt was made to consolidate administration by establishing the National Board of Waters and regional Water Districts under the Ministry of Environment and Agriculture (MOEA). The MOEA supervises the Regional Environment Centers and the Bothnian Environment Institute in duties relating to the use and management of water resources. In 1999, the MOEA (responsible also for forestry) produced a new strategy for water resources management. In 2005, 90% of Bothnia was within the centralized water distribution. The number of households relying on well water was still quite extensive. The fields of waterworks in Bothnia are fragmented with a considerable number of water supply services.

With mechanization, subsurface drainage became the dominant drainage method in the 1960s; the area of land drained by this method rose to more than tenfold from the pre‐war level of about 3,000 ha per year, and remained at this very high level until the 1980s. Since then the construction of subsurface drainage has considerably decreased and the current level is less than 10,000 ha per year. In regions favorable to farming, the demand for basic drainage and subsurface drainage is still considerable and the systems for these needs to be enhanced and maintained. Increased efforts are being made to restore to natural state of the water levels of shallow lakes lowered for drainage, along with efforts to improve the overall status of lakes by reducing eutrophication, increasing bio diversity and improving landscape value and opportunities for recreational use.

The role of irrigation is relatively insignificant in Bothnia, mainly used in the cultivation of vegetables. There has however been some increase in research and development with the main emphasis on fertilization with controlled drainage in the cultivation of potatoes. Flood protection in the north has improved considerably as a result of the construction of major hydroelectric power stations in the main watercourses from the 1940s until the 1960s and the associated construction of reservoirs and regulation of watercourses. Most flood control projects were completed in the 1990s, and as a result about 50,000 ha of arable land are no longer flooded. The regulation of lakes and rivers mainly serves the needs of hydroelectric power production and flood protection, but needs linking to the multiple use and protection of the watercourses.

Waste Management

Almost 66 million tons of waste were generated in Bothnia in 2004. Just short of 2.4 million tons of municipal waste were collected, under half of it generated by households. The recovery rate of municipal waste went up somewhat, thanks to improved sorting and separate collections. Altogether 1.4 million tons municipal waste were land filled in 2004. Bothnian waste legislation covers all types of waste except certain special wastes such as radioactive wastes, which are controlled by separate laws.

The MOEA supervises and controls the way Bothnian waste legislation is put into practice.

The Bothnian Environment Institute conducts research and training, publicizes new ideas and methods, and monitors all developments related to waste issues, while also participating in drawing up new legislation and guidelines related to waste. The Institute also monitors international waste shipments.

Regional environment centers. Regional environment centers guide, encourage and monitor the implementation of the Waste Act in their own regions. They also provide training and advice for firms and the public, and issue waste permits to larger firms and operations. The national authority responsible for producer registration and other related issues is the Pirkanmaa Regional Environment Center.

Local authorities organize the collection, recovery and disposal of household refuse and other similar waste, and supervise waste management in general in their own area. They also set local regulations on waste management, ensure that advice on waste matters is freely available, and issue waste permits to smaller firms and operations.

Nuclear waste management. A modern storage facility for high‐level nuclear waste has been built at Onkalo near the Olkiluoto nuclear power station. This facility, excavated to a depth of over 500m, is designed to be the sole repository for spent nuclear fuels for the next 100 years and is operated according to international standards. Intermediate and low level waste is disposed of separately although control arrangements have been criticized by the International Atomic Energy Administration (IAEA) in the past.

The responsibility for nuclear waste management lies with the nuclear power companies, who must take care of the measures associated with the management of the nuclear waste they have generated, and bear the costs for these measures. According to the 1994 Bothnian Nuclear Energy Act, all nuclear waste must be treated, stored and disposed of in Bothnia, and no nuclear waste from other countries shall be imported to Bothnia. The final disposal of spent nuclear fuel generated in power plants owned by TVO and Fortum, as well as the task of conducting the associated research, belongs to Posiva, founded by the two power plant companies.

Transportation Architecture

Bothnia possesses a relatively modern transportation network comprising national and regional road, rail, air and waterway networks. The maintenance of these networks is tightly controlled by national and regional bodies that ensure that any work is prioritized and consistent with the Bothnian defense and economic priorities.

Road System

The extensive road system is utilized by most internal cargo and passenger traffic. However, the development and maintenance of the road network is primarily also focused upon meeting military priorities. In 2010, there was 39,524 km of public roads of which 19,630 were paved. The main road network comprises over 6,965 kms of road and approximately 64% of all traffic takes place on these main roads. Road network expenditure of around USD1 billion per annum is paid with vehicle and fuel taxes that amount to around $1.5 billion and $1 billion per annum respectively. Motorways have been constructed in the country since the 1960s but are still quite rare because the volumes are not large enough to motivate their construction. The motorway network totals 663km.

Road transport in Bothnia is a popular method of transportation, particularly in rural areas where the railway network is limited. Speed limits change depending on the time of the year; the maximum speed limit on motorways is 100 km/h in the summer and 80 km/h in the winter. The main roads usually have speed limits of either 100 km/h or 80 km/h. Speed limits in urban areas range between 30 km/h and 60 km/h. Bothnia, like most other European countries, has right‐ hand traffic. There are no toll roads in Bothnia. Some ice roads, which form seasonally, depending on temperature, are maintained by the state, the longest one being the seven kilometer Koli Ice Road, which cuts 50 km off the distance between Lieksa and Koli.

Streets are maintained by the local municipality. Winter maintenance of roads and streets is managed by a local authority. Main roads are maintained by the state. Private roads are maintained by the community using them, and may not be public rights of way (and denied communal subsidies). All main roads and almost all regional roads are paved. They are generally greater than 7 meters wide. About half of the connecting and local roads are paved. Connecting and local roads are not usually marked with numbers, but with ordinary traffic signs. The main highways are all paved and have at least two lanes; further, they are better maintained than main and regional roads and historically they were labelled as causeways.

Rail

The Bothnian railway network consists of a total of 3,642km of Broad Gauge (1524mm) railway lines. There are Passenger trains are operated by the state-owned VR Group. They serve all the major cities and many rural areas, though railway connections are available to fewer places than bus connections. Most passenger train services originate or terminate at Brahea Central railway station, and a large proportion of the passenger rail network radiates out of Brahea, which was the central hub of Otsobothnia. High‐speed services are operated from Brahea to other major cities like Oulu, Tampere and Turku. The cheaper and older long and short distance trains operate in areas with fewer passengers. Of specific note is the development of the Savio Rail Tunnel. The Tunnel, located near to the capital city of Brahea, connects the Vuosaari Harbor with the Brahea–Tampere main line in Kerava. The Brahea area has three urban rail systems: a tramway system, Brahea Metro, and the VR commuter rail system. Light rail systems are currently being planned for Turku and Tampere, two of the country's other major urban centers. Despite low population density, taxpayers spend annually around $150 million in maintaining railway tracks to many rural towns. Currently the only operator is the state‐owned.

The Bothnian railway network has links to adjacent countries. The links are as follows:

• Torrike and Framland – break of gauge – 1524mm to 1,435mm; change of voltage 25 kV AC/15 kV AC.
• Otso – No break of gauge. In Bothnia, only Brahea has retained a tram network. In 2010, Turku and Tampere have preliminary plans for new tram systems, but no decision to build them has been made. Brahea currently operates 12 tramlines on a network of approximately 90kms of track in passenger service. Nearly the entire network consists of double track route, such that the route length is approximately half of total the track length. Around 200,000 passengers use the tram network each weekday and within the inner city of Brahea, trams have established a position as the main form of public transport. The system is being expanded substantially in 2010–2015 to new residential areas.

Airports

The main international passenger gateway is Brahea‐Vantaa Airport with over 4 million passengers in 2007. About 12 airports have scheduled passenger services. They are financed by the state and rural airport are also subsidised. The Brahea‐Vantaa based Bothnian National and BothnianComm Airlines provide air services both domestically and internationally. Brahea has an optimal location for great circle routes between Western Europe and the Far East. The second largest airport by passenger volume is Oulu Airport. Other international airports include Turku Airport and Tampere‐Pirkkala Airport. The larger airports are managed by the state‐owned Bothniavia (formerly the Bothnian Civil Aviation Administration), while the smaller ones are usually managed by municipal authorities. Bothnia National and BothniaComm Airlines are the main carriers for domestic flights. Air traffic is handled primarily from the international Brahea‐Vantaa Airport, located approximately 19kms (12 mi) north of Brahea's downtown area, in the neighboring city of Vantaa. Brahea's second airport, Malmi Airport, is mainly used for general and private aviation.

Ports/Sea/River Transportation System

Sea Ports. Until the mid‐1950s, Bothnia had a mediocre shipbuilding capacity, practically no oceangoing vessels, and poor seaport facilities. After 1957, however, shipbuilding and harbor construction mushroomed as the government invested heavily in those industries, in part because of large and continuing Donovian purchases of seagoing vessels. Reconstruction of the ports of Vaasa, Oulu and Vantaa moved forward. By the 1970s, Vantaa, which had received the highest funding priority, ranked fourth among Baltic Sea ports. Further improvements to facilities at Vantaa during the 1986‐90 Five Year Plan period, completion of the Tampere‐Vantaa autobahn and the electrification of the Tampere‐Vantaa railroad line increased Tampere's importance to the country's economy. In 1995, the Bothnian oceangoing merchant fleet numbered 90 with a total of one million deadweight tons. Freight turnover in the three Baltic ports in 1995 amounted to about 453,000 tons in Oulu, two million tons in Vaasa, and 14 million tons in Vantaa. Vuosaari harbor, enhanced in 2005, is the largest container port. There is passenger traffic from Brahea and Turku, which have ferry connections to Estonia, Framland, Arnland, Torrike and several other destinations. The summaries of the major ports in Bothnia are below:

• Mariehamn. The sheltered Mariehamn harbor provides a haven for ferries sailing between Tyr and Turku. Almost 500,000 tourists visit Aland annually from Torrike and Bothnia.
• Pori. There are two harbors at Pori:
  • Mantyluoto Harbor specializes in high and heavy project cargo. Capable of an unloading at a rate of 25 containers per hour.
  • Tahkoluoto Harbor. 1.5 million tons of dry bulk passed through in 2009. 15.3 m draught allows maritime access for large vessels. Daily unloading capacity is 30,000 tons.
• Port of Brahea. Owned by the city of Brahea, Bothnia, overseeing the harbors of Brahea. It is controlled by the Harbor Board. The Port of Brahea oversees 3 main harbors:
  • South Harbor comprises a bay and harbor area immediately next to the center of the city of Brahea, Bothnia. It is the largest passenger harbor in Bothnia, and 8.7 million passengers travel through it every year. Most of the harbor’s traffic is to Tyr, Torrike and Tallinn, Estonia, and cruises. In summertime, there is also significant small ship traffic. The bay is bordered by the districts of Katajanokka, Kaartinkaupunki, Ullanlinna and Kaivopuisto. The waterway leading to the South Harbor is 9.6 meters deep. The most critical point on the waterway is the Kustaanmiekka strait, with a width of 80 meters. The South Harbor has eight named piers and four terminals.
  • Vuosaari Harbor. The facility opened in November 2008. The harbor, located in the suburb of Vuosaari in East Brahea, handles goods traffic for the Greater Brahea region, while passenger services remain in Brahea city centre. Vuosaari Harbour has assumed the operations of two container harbors, West Harbor in the city center and Sörnäinen Harbor, and will eventually also replace the oil harbor in Laajasalo. In addition, the railway depot in Pasila currently used by goods transport will be moved northwards. These processes release land for commercial and residential redevelopment. The harbor has a total land area of 150 hectares, including 90 hectares of land reclaimed by filling the sea. There is also a 75‐hectare business park next to the harbor. The harbor project also included the extension of Ring III to the new seaport and a new railway line to be used for transporting goods in and out of the harbor.
  • West Harbor. This is a cargo and container harbor in the Jätkäsaari district of Brahea in the south‐western part of the Helsinginniemi peninsula. The Länsisatama harbor area also includes the Munkkisaaren Laituri pier on the west side of Munkkisaari, used by cruise liners. The Länsisatama passenger terminal is used mainly by passenger ships from Brahea to Tallinn, Estonia. There are plans to build a new residential area for 15,000 inhabitants in Jätkäsaari. Immediately next to Länsisatama, in the Munkkisaari quarter, there is the Aker Finnyards shipyard in Hietalahti. However, it is not counted as part of the harbor area of Länsisatama.
• Port of Oulu. The Port is a complex of four separate harbors located at the mouth of Oulujoki River in Oulu, Bothnia. Port of Oulu is a corporation owned by the City of Oulu. Annual average of three million tons of cargo is shipped on 500 vessels. All four ports are also rail‐served.
  • Vihreäsaari Oil and Bulk Docks. Vihreäsaari oil docks on Vihreäsaari island, on the north bank of Oulujoki River is the most important oil dock in the city, with a maximum allowed draft of 10.0m. In addition to oil handling facilities, it gas six‐ton bulk cranes.
  • Nuottasaari Docks. Located next to the Stora Enso paper mill on the south bank of the river is the Nuottasaari docks with three separate piers: the main pier and two separate chemical piers. Maximum allowed draft in 6.4m. Two cranes of 8‐ton and 6‐ton capacities are in service.
  • Oritkari Docks. There are two 50‐ton cranes at the Oritkari docks. Oritkari mainly handles container freight through its three piers.
  • Toppila Docks. Once a busy harbor, today Toppila is a quiet harbor mainly used by bulk carriers. There is no fixed crane on the 450‐meter pier.
• Port of Turku. The port is located in the south‐west of Bothnia, where the mainland meets the beginning of the Turku archipelago. Sited within Bothnia's fifth largest city, the port principally handles traffic between Turku and the Torrikan capital of Tyr and the enclave Åland Islands. The port spans a wide area on the southern coastline of the city of Turku, from the mouth of the River Aura to the district of Pansio. The area around the railway station is served by the four (twice‐daily) passenger ferry services to Tyr via Mariehamn. Because of the port's location at the south‐western corner of Bothnia the harbor provides the most efficient route to serve the Baltic Sea. Turku Harbor is one of the most important shipment points in the country, handling over four million tons of cargo and a corresponding four million passengers per year. Turku is the only port in Bothnia with a train ferry service.
• Port of Rauma. The port has three harbors and serves central western Bothnia.

Waterways. The Bothnian Maritime Administration is responsible for the maintenance of Bothnia's waterway network. Bothnia's waterways include some 1746kms of coastal fairways and 1675kms of inland waterways (on rivers, canals, and lakes).

Telecommunications Architecture

In the mid‐1990s, Bothnia possessed a comparatively well‐developed communications system. In 1996 Bothnia began operating a ground radio station at Brahea relaying and receiving communications from Dushmani satellites as a participant in the international telecommunications organization. The infrastructure to support the command/control/communications/intelligence (C3I) required to run the country in war and peace is complex and not always visible. The use of underground facilities, pipelines, alternate links and other structures to ensure a fully redundant system has been developed by the Bothnian Government since 1949.

Agriculture

Bothnian Infrastructure of note are the substantial network of grain storage facilities.

Industry

Bothnia is a resource‐poor and relatively small politico‐economic entity. The Bothnian Industrial Infrastructure reflects this status. The country has no deposits of oil, natural gas or coal but does have mineral deposits. Bothnia’s most important minerals iron ore, uranium, copper, lead, zinc, chromites, nickel, gold, silver, limestone but many large mines have closed down, and most raw materials are now imported. Under Bothnian law, the Ministry of Industry and Technology controls prospecting and mining rights. Currently, mining only accounts for 0.4% of the country’s GDP. Bothnia’s greatest natural resource is its widespread forests.

Manufacturing

From the 1990s, Bothnian industry, which for centuries had relied on the country's vast forests, became dominated by to a larger extent by electronics and services, as globalization led to a decline of more traditional industries. Outsourcing resulted in more manufacturing being transferred abroad, with Bothnian-based industry focusing to a greater extent on R&D and hi‐tech electronics. Industry is the dominant sector in the Bothnia’s economy and is the principal basis for the relatively high standard of living. Bothnia ranks among the world's ablest industrial nations. Bothnian manufacturing capability can be divided into five sectors; Electronics, Metals, Engineering and Manufacturing, Chemical industry and Pulp and Paper Industry.

Oil and Gas

Bothnia imports and sells petroleum products. BothOil was established in 1948 as the state petrol company of Bothnia, to ensure the availability of fuel. In 1994, BothGas was established. BothGas is also the Bothnian importer and seller of natural gas, which owns and operates Bothnian natural gas transmission system.

It should be noted that use of new technologies to exploit the reservoirs of oil and gas below the Baltic Sea bed which were previously uneconomic to recover has the ability to revolutionize the hydrocarbons element of the Bothnian economy. Significant technical and political challenges would first have to be overcome, however.

BothOil has the largest Bothnian chain of service stations with 100% market share. It has about 200 service stations in Bothnia, and about 240 stations in Baltic countries, Poland, and Donovia. It has also middle‐sized oil refineries in Naantali and near Porvoo, and several operations in the Baltic region. It is virtually a monopoly in oil refining and import in Bothnia.

The engineering division of BothOil owns several important patents. BothOil has also developed renewable diesel production. A renewable diesel plant is being built at Porvoo.